My Science School

The history of world cinema dates back to 1895 when the first motion picture was produced and exhibited in Paris and since then cinema has never looked back. Recently in 1995, it completed a hundred years and this occasion was celebrated all over the world with much pomp and ceremony. Cinema originated in its raw form only as moving pictures but with the gradual passage of time, it steadfastly kept on improving its form and presentation to reach its present status. The primary reason for its continuous progress and tremendous technical advancement was the mass popularity it achieved as a major source of entertainment till the advent of television.

To go back to the birth of cinema, the root can be traced to a machine called kinetoscope which was invented by Thomas Edison in 1891. This machine showed moving pictures for the first time. But a little later, two French brothers called Auguste and Louis Lumiere built a similar machine called cinematographe. This machine could project pictures from a piece of film onto a screen as this had a camera as well as a projector. The pictures were shown one after another in rapid succession and the images on the screen appeared to move. The Lumiere brothers produced the world’s first motion picture in 1895 and gave the world’s first public show in Paris in the same year.

The early films were in black and white, the movements were very jerky and they had no sound. They are called ‘silent cinemas’ as the images did not produce any sound effects on the screen. In the initial days, only news items and real events were shown in the films but the later film-makers made films with their own stories. The actors played the role of the imaginary characters in the stories. The Lumiere brothers made the first story film ‘Watering the Gardener’.

The silent cinema proved to be a great success though tickets were very expensive and as a result huge profits were earned. Consequently large investments were made to improvise and upgrade the technology which gave rise to the use of various types of special effects in the movies. Dance and song sequences, lavish costumes and specially designed sets or background were gradually added to make the scenes more impressive and glamourous.

The phenomenal growth in popularity of the films laid the foundation of a star system even in those days. An unknown girl named Florence Lawrence (later renamed Mary Pickford) became the world’s sweetheart and the first star to earn a million dollar from acting. After the First World War the American films became grand successes when they cheered the war-torn world and entertained the people thus enabling them to forget their miseries and bitter memories of the war. Hollywood city in California became the film city of the world.

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          These days we often watch this sport in television where a horse, with its rider, is seen jumping and crossing over several hurdles on a specially prepared course. This event is known as show-jumping. In this competition, a horse and its rider are supposed to overcome a series of walls, fences and other obstacles as neatly as possible to gather maximum points to win the competition. Bonus points are also awarded to those who complete the course successfully in the fastest time. Horses, one after another, attempt to clear them to earn the points.

          It is very interesting to know how points are won and lost during the course of the competition. For example, when a horse jumps a brick-wall and kicks any of the bricks off the wall then it would lose points. Also while crossing the wooden poles, care should be taken that none of the poles is displaced by the horse so that full points can be scored in this part. There are also other types of obstacles like mounds, and ditches filled with water etc. and the horses must be able to clear them. There are also cases which lead to a serious loss of points, e.g. when the horse refuses to jump a fence. A participant also incurs a heavy loss of points when a horse throws its rider out of the saddle.

          Over the years, show-jumping has acquired a wide popularity as people now watch the competition on their TV screens. The event is full of adventure and hence thrilling.

 

          One of the most famous detectives of all times, Sherlock Holmes has become a legendary figure in the minds of people through the works of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. People all over the world know him as an eccentric person, with amazing powers of concentration and brilliance. He was a detective par excellence with a superb analytical mind that smoked a pipe and played a violin - typical traits as portrayed by Sir Doyle. Sherlock Holme’s character and lifestyle are so interestingly depicted in Doyle’s novel that many of Holme’s fans have searched for his house at 221 B, Baker Street, London, which infact, did not exist. 

          Sherlock Holme’s house did not exist because he himself never existed in reality. He was only a fictious character born out of the imagination of the novelist Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, making his first appearance in 1887 in one of Doyle’s works. He appeared as a detective in other subsequent works of Doyle and became a household name. But Doyle projected this character so brilliantly and vividly that people often wondered if he existed in reality. Children mistake him to be a character in flesh and blood and consider him to be their ideal whenever they aspire to be a detective.

          In the novel, Sherlock Holmes used to be assisted by Dr Watson, another character in Doyle’s novel, who was rather dim and slow in comparison to Holme’s brilliance. Among these stories of Doyle, which are set in London at the end of the 19th century, the most famous is The Hound of Baskervilles.

 

          Though, with the rise of pop music in the 1960s, jazz started fading from the public eye yet its contribution to the world of occidental music can never be under-mined. In fact, pop owes much to jazz as a source of its origin. But what is jazz and how did it originate?

          Jazz is a kind of music which was first played by the Black American musicians in the 1800s and enjoyed much popularity in the western world till the 1960s. It was greatly influenced by the musical traditions of the black slaves of Southern USA. Their musical traditions mainly consisted of the traditions of their West African ancestors as well as their own distinctive style of spirituals.

          In jazz, the players use unexpected rhythm. They can play any notes they like but such changes must fit the music played by the rest of the band. This implies that one or more of the players can create new musical ideas and play them as they go along. These way most jazz musicians express their feelings and ideas which, therefore, permit them to improvise while performing. Jazz players often manage to get a personal tone which distinguishes them from others. ‘Swing’ is another important feature of jazz which means that emphasis is laid on the off-beats in the music.

          The earliest jazz was played in New Orleans, USA, but later Chicago became the centre of jazz from where it developed into an international music. Now many new jazz styles have arisen as musicians of different countries have added their own ideas and traditions to the music to create their own variety. Jazz greatly enriched itself through its inherent flexibility and being receptive enough to accommodate new elements.

          Among the few outstanding players of jazz of the earlier times, Joe ‘King’ Oliver and Louis Armstrong were well-known.

 

          Ballet is a theatrical form of dance based on a strict technique. The dancing form is very beautiful and precise which, generally, presents an idea or tells a story and is accompanied by music.

          The origin of ballet can be traced to a kind of dance which appeared in Italy in the 1400s. But the present form of ballet, as it is danced today, started in France during the 1500s. Ballet was officially recognized as a form of art in France during the reign of King Louis XIV in the 1600s.

          In Ballet, a ballerina is a female dancer and the chief female dancer is called the prima ballerina. The person who plans and arranges the dancing is called a choreographer. The whole group of performers is called corps de ballet.

          Strict rules and traditions are followed in classical ballet. There are standard positions for the arms, legs and hands, as well as special movements that allow the dance a smooth flow. Classical or traditional ballet is accompanied by orchestras, elaborate scenery and splendid customs. The dancers do not speak a word though the dance itself communicates an idea or tells a story. The performers convey the story through their body movements.

          Incorporation of more modern and liberal dance steps have changed the colour of classical ballet as we find in modern ballets of present times. Though the dance originated in Italy and later developed in France, yet Russians are considered to have excelled others in performing this art. Among the most famous ballets composed, ‘Swan Lake’ and ‘The Sleeping Beauty’ by Tchaikovsky are the all time favourites. Ballet has also produced a number of great stars - Anna Pavlova occupies a prominent place among them.

          Rigorous training and hard work are necessary to become a good ballet dancer and for this reason some students prefer to learn it at a very young age.

          Man has lived in the mountains since prehistoric times. He often used to journey across difficult mountain regions. However, mountaineering became a sport about a hundred years ago. It does not involve any competition among people. Mostly many individuals, making up a party, climb together as a team. They depend upon one another for their protection and safety. It is a challenging sport.

          Mountaineers attempt to scale peaks in a convenient group. As they move up the dangerous peaks, they are generally tied together with a rope at a distance of about six metres. They do climb all at once. The leader climbs first and guides the rest. Mountaineers use special equipments for climbing. They wear special climbing boots, the soles of which are made of moulded rubber. It helps them gain a firm foothold on the dry rocks as well as snow. They wear protection suits against cold and wind at higher altitudes. They wear snow goggles for protection against the blinding glare. Each team carries a 40 metre long rope. They also carry things like oxygen cylinders, a compass, ice-axes, karabiners and pitons for different uses.

          The earliest recorded rock climbing was made in the British Isles by Sir Robert Moray who climbed the Stac Na Biorrach, St. Kilda (71.9 m 236 ft.) in 1698.

          Only about the year 1949 mountaineering became popular as a sport and climbers approached it scientifically. On 29 May, 1953, Tenzing Norgay of India and Edmond Hillary of New Zealand succeeded in scaling Mount Everest for the first time. And within the next five years all the top ten peaks in the world were conquered. 

          Swimming is the skill of staying afloat (on top of water) and moving through water. Swimming is a healthy exercise, and learning it may help you in times of emergency and crisis.

          In ancient times swimming was taught to warriors in Rome, Assyria and Greece. Gradually it became competitive and was included in the 1896 Olympics as a sport. To start with only males could participate in it. From the year 1912, women too were allowed to contest. Today swimming is a very popular sport throughout the world. Many swimming competitions take place on the national and international levels.

          There are several styles of swimming. The most efficient way of travelling through water is by a stroke called the ‘crawl’. With this stroke, the body cuts through the shallowest amount of water. The crawl is the fastest of all swimming styles and is used by record-setting champions. The crawl was developed in Australia early in the 20th century from a stroke used by the people of the South Seas.

          Other major styles of swimming include the backstroke and the breaststroke. Breaststroke was used in Europe as back as in the 16th century. With these strokes, the body of the swimmers enters more deeply into the water and therefore they are slower.

          There are separate races for different strokes and over different distances. The fastest swimmer is declared the winner. Now long distances like the length of a channel or a lake are set for the competitors of swimming competitions. 

          There are several games played all over the world. They are divided into two broad categories – indoor and outdoor games. They can also be grouped as indigenous (Indian) and foreign games. By Indian games we mean those games which are exclusively Indian in origin and form. 

          Polo is widely known as an Indian game. Although it is said to have originated in Persia or modern Iran, it has been played over a very long time in India. It has developed and evolved to its present form in this country and is rightly considered an Indian game. Polo is a game played on horseback with ‘mallet’ and was known as ‘chaugan’. It is an expensive game. It was very much liked by noblemen and princes. It was, therefore, not a game of the common people. Polo started as a game in the cavalry units of the king’s army and other mounted troops. 

 

 

           Kabaddi, played throughout the country in some form or the other, is another popular game of India. It is simple and does not involve any expenditure. In Maharashtra, it is called ‘Tu, Tu, Tu’, and in Tamilnadu ‘Chudy-cudu’. 

 

 

          The game of kho-kho is said to have originated at Baroda in Gujarat. Today, it is quite popular in schools and colleges throughout the country. There are even regular inter-university ‘kho-kho’ championships held every year.

Other popular Indian outdoor games include kite-flying, stick-ball and gulli danda. Among the indoor games are chaupur, chess and cards. Apart from these there are several local games played in different parts of the country. 

 

         The Sphinx Stela of Amenhotep II (1450 -1425 B.C) records that he stroked a boat for some three miles.

          According to the available records, sometime in 2000 B.C. the Mesopotamians used to hold a kind of boat race on the river Euphrates. A few centuries later, the Egyptians started having rowing competitions on the river Nile. Today, boat racing is a popular sport in the world.

          Rowing is divided into two basic types of competition. Regatta events are knocking out competitions, ending with a race between two or more finalists. Head, the other type of the river races, which are not used in international championships, are processional; the boats set off at intervals and the result is decided by their times over the course. Regattas are held over a stretch of river, lake, coast or artificial course while Head races are held over a stretch of river of variable length.

          The first boat race of modern times was held in England in 1716. This was organized by an actor called Thomas Doggette. He arranged for a single-sculling race (light racing boat having a single rower) among the Thames ferrymen. This became a popular and regular annual feature. It is called Doggette’s Coat and Badge.

          The first boat race at the University level took place between Oxford and Cambridge at Henley on Thames in 1829. This was an eight-oar race, i.e. eight participants rowing one boat. By the late 19th century, rowing as a sport was known in most of the countries. Since the World War II, however, boat racing became a professional and prestigious sport.

          In such competitions the number of oarmen in a boat varies. There are eight, four or even two oarmen in one boat. In the eight oar competitions there is also a coxswain (man in charge of a rowing boat and its crew) to steer the boat. In other contests, the boat is steered by connecting the rudder (broad flat piece of wood) to a pivoted pad under one of the oarmen’s feet.

          The European and Americans are very good at rowing but now the Chinese too give stiff competition. 

          The highlight of long distance racing in the Olympics or in any other great athletic meet is the marathon. It gets its name from a legendary run made by a Greek soldier, Pheidippides, in 490 B.C. He raced from the plains of Marathon to Athens to convey the news of a great victory for Athens over an army of invading Persians. The distance he covered was 40 km (25 miles).

          In remembrance of the legendary run, in 1896, at the first modern Olympics in Athens, it was decided to stage a long road race. Most of the 16 runners in the first Marathon were Greek, but they were untrained and inexperienced and most of them soon collapsed with exhaustion. The winner, a Greek called Spiros Louis, was finally joined by the Greek royal family who jogged alongside him on the last lap to the finishing line. His victory was a great sensation. The first Boston marathon, the world’s longest-lasting major marathon, was held on 19 April, 1897 for a distance of 39 km (24 miles 132 yds). And the first national marathon championship was that of Norway in 1897.

          Since 1924, the marathon has been fixed at 42.195 kilometres (26 miles 385 yds.) This distance was also used for the race at the 1908 Olympic Games, run from Windsor to the White City Stadium – a distance regularly run in about two and a half hours nowadays. However, as marathon courses differ in distance, so the International Amateur Athletic Federation does not list a world record for this event. The marathon race is a fascinating event because neither age nor training seems to play a vital role in winning this race. 

          Originally the game of Pok-ta-Pok was played in the 10th century BC, by the Olmecs in Mexico and closely resembled the basketball in its concept. ‘Ollamalitzli’ was a variation of this game played by the Aztecs in Mexico as late as the 16th century. If the solid rubber ball was put through a fixed stone ring the player was entitled to the clothing of all the viewers.

          Modern basketball which may have been based on the German game Korbball was played for the first time in mid-December 1891. This game was invented by the Canadian born Dr James A. Naismith. He was the physical education instructor at the Training School of the International YMCA College at Springfield in Massachusetts, USA. He was asked to invent a new game to enthuse the students as they were bored with their daily physical education classes.

          Naismith used ideas from games such as the Red Indian lacrosse, hockey, football, soccer and blended them with his own ideas and invented basketball. This new game unlike lacrosse did not require a stick. It did not even involve kicking the ball, as in soccer. It involved throwing the ball into the basket hence it was named basketball. 

          Soon the new game aroused the interest of the bored students at the YMCA. News of the game spread rapidly to other parts of America. During the next ten years it was introduced in Canada, France, Britain, China, India and Japan.

          The first goals were two peach-baskets. The iron hoop and net were introduced two years later. Initially people had to climb a ladder to get the ball from the net. But later a hole was made at the bottom of the net so that the ball could drop through.

          The game gained popularity after the Second World War. It is played by two teams, each having five players. Its field is rectangular, measuring 92 ft (28 m) in length and 50 ft (15 m) in breadth. Close to the centre of both the smaller sides, two baskets are suspended from two poles at a height of 10 ft (3 m). To score a goal a team has to send the ball through the basket.

          The first basketball match, played under modified rules, was on 20th January, 1892. Americans are considered the best players of basketball. The International Amateur Basketball Federation was founded in 1932; it has now dropped the word ‘Amateur’ from the title. It was first included in the Olympic Games in 1936. 

          The game of polo is considered the oldest game in the world. It was played in Persia (modern Iran) during the 1st century A.D. Some scholars even claim that it was invented by the Persians around 2000 B.C. However, Iran is generally regarded as its originator. From Iran it was carried to Arabia and from there to Tibet. In Tibet, it was called ‘Pulu’. In fact, the word ‘polo’ has been derived from ‘pulu’ which means ‘ball’.

          In India polo was introduced by the Mohammedan conquerors in the 13th century. From here it was taken to England in 1860. Nowadays, it is played not only in India but also in Argentina, England, USA, and some other countries of the world. The earliest polo club of modern times was the ‘Cachar Club’ in Assam.

          Polo is played with a stick and a ball on horseback. The polo stick is called a ‘mallet’. It is an outdoor game. Its grass-field is 274.32 metres long and 146.3 metres wide. There are lightweight goal posts, 7.3 metres apart at each end. A goal is scored by hitting the ball through these goal posts. Two teams, each having four players play, the game. To be good at this game one has to be an expert horse-rider.

          Polo is played in six, seven or eight rounds. These are called ‘chukkers’. The duration of one chukker is 7.5 minutes. After every chukker there is a break.

          Polo is an expensive game and only the rich can afford it. Perhaps that’s why it is called the game of the princes.

          The first game of elephant polo was played at Jaipur in 1976 which was watched by about 40,000 spectators. In 1978, a camel polo was played at the same venue. Now, people have started playing even cycle polo. The world’s biggest trophy for polo is the Bangalore Limited Handicap Polo Tournament Trophy. It is a cup six feet in height.

          Whenever somebody hiccups, it is often remarked that he is being remembered by some one. Some people even go to the extent of saying that the person who is hiccupping has secretly eaten something. In fact all these sayings are myths. It is just a reflex action of the body by which the body protects itself. The question arises: why do we hiccup?

          Hiccups are short, sharp, and very sudden breaths of air which happen when our breathing muscles jerks, making us gasp. There is a diaphragm located between the chest and the stomach. While inhaling air this diaphragm goes down and presses the stomach due to which the lungs are filled with air; while exhaling air, the diaphragm goes up and the air comes out from the lungs. Thus the diaphragm goes up and down and the process of respiration continues incessantly without making any sound. The diaphragm functions like a piston. But sometimes, due to the formation of gas or increase of acidity in the stomach, the diaphragm gets irritated and as a result contracts suddenly. In such a situation, the air passing into the lungs experiences obstruction and makes a peculiar sound. This is nothing but the hiccup. Therefore it is a process by which the body tries to expel gas or undesirable food material out of the stomach so that respiration remains unobstructed. Shrinking of the diaphragm due to drinking or the growth of a tumour near it also causes hiccup. Hiccups can be caused by eating or drinking too much or too fast. It may also be a symptom of mineral disorders and brain-stem disease.

          Hiccups usually last for a few minutes and disappear if nothing is done about them. The best way to stop hiccup is to drink a glass of cold water because the cold water stops the irritation produced in the diaphragm and it resumes its normal movement. Hiccup can also be stopped by holding breath for a while. Sometimes the hiccup stops when one sees something frightening. If the hiccup does not stop even after a long time, it is advisable to consult a physician. Generally under such situations, doctors prescribe the inhaling of oxygen mixed with 5 to 10 per cent carbon dioxide. Chlorpromazine also suppresses hiccup. 

          After a day’s work, we all get tired. Similarly we get tired after running, swimming or doing exercises. Do you know why we get tired after doing some work?

          When we do some work at a fast speed, our muscles do not get as much oxygen as they need. In such a situation to provide extra energy to the body, the glycogen stored in our muscles is transformed into lactic acid through the process of fermentation. The lactic acid reduces the working capacity of the muscles. This state of the body is known as muscle fatigue.

          The lactic acid acts as a poison for the muscles. If we can expel the lactic acid from the muscles by some process, they can again become fit for working.

          As a result of the muscular action some other substances called fatigue toxins are also produced in the body. Blood circulates these acids and toxins throughout the body because of which both the body and the brain get tired. Even when we do some mental work lactic acid and fatigue toxins are produced in the body and we get tired. Scientists have conducted many experiments in this field. A dog was made to work hard. And when it got tired and went to sleep its blood was transfused into an active dog’s body. This active dog also became tired and fell asleep. Similarly if the blood of an active dog is transfused to the body of a tired dog, it immediately becomes active.

          Fatigue is not only a chemical process but is a biological process too. It is a defence mechanism. This tells us as to when to stop work and give rest to the body. Fatigue cannot be removed fast. It is essential to give rest to the cells of the body to remove it. Sleep is a very effective means to remove fatigue. This repairs the damaged cells of the body. With the arrival of proper quantity of oxygen in the body through breathing, the lactic acid is reconverted into glycogen and we again start feeling fresh. Little rest also removes fatigue to some extent. The loss of glycogen due to fatigue is repleted to some extent by our food also. That is why a tired person feels very hungry.

 

          When we look at the human race we find that it is divided in two sexes - male and female. The question arises: Why don’t all people belong to one sex? What causes some babies to be girls and others, boys? In other words, what determines the sex of an individual?

          A woman becomes capable of bearing a child after she starts menstruation. Between the 10th and the 18th days from the onset of menstruation, the reproductive organs of a woman produce an egg called ‘ovum’. During this period if a woman mates with a man, a sperm present in the semen of the man fertilizes the egg. The combination of the ovum of the female and the sperm of the male results in the formation of the embryo in the womb.

          The ova of the female and the sperms of the male contain sex chromosomes. The ova have only one type of chromosome called X chromosomes. But the sperms have two types of sex chromosomes called X and Y chromosomes respectively. The X chromosomes are slightly bigger than the Y chromosomes in size.

          When female sex cells are to be formed, the two X chromosomes of the female germ cell come together. They then split lengthwise, forming four X chromosomes. In the formation of male sex cells, the single X chromosome pairs with its smaller partner, the Y chromosome. Each of these chromosomes split lengthwise. The cell then contains two X chromosomes and two Y chromosomes. When this cell gives rise to four new cells - the sex cells - half will contain X chromosomes, the other half, Y chromosomes. If these two kinds of sperm are equally efficient in reaching and fertilizing the egg cells, we should expect the two kinds of fertilized eggs to be equally numerous. Half of these would have two X chromosomes (XX) and would develop into girls. Half would carry one X and one Y chromosome (XY) and would give rise to boys. As a matter of fact, male births are slightly more frequent than female births. The reason is yet not known.