Did the Indus Valley hold some large ancient cities?


       Did you know that some of the cities of the Indus Valley had between 35,000 and 40,000 people living in them? Some of these cities were as big as some modern cities!



       The most important cities were Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Chanhudaro, Kalibangan, Banawali, Lothal, Dholavira, Sutkagendor and Surkotada. The cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were well planned and solidly built of brick and stone. They had drainage systems, wells and water storage systems, as well as systems for weights and trade. The people made jewellery and toys for their children, and even developed a system of writing, which we unfortunately have not been able to decipher until today.



Picture Credit : Google



 

Where are the sites of great civilizations hidden?


       Do you know that large mounds sometimes have ancient cities hidden underneath them? In fact, the Indus Valley Civilization was discovered when an archaeologist, R.D. Bannerjee, visited Mohenjo-daro and saw a large mound. He thought there might be something underneath, and started digging. As the mud was gradually removed, an entire city was revealed!



       How was this city covered with mud? When an ancient city began to decline, people left it, and moved elsewhere.



       After hundreds of years, the abandoned buildings crumbled and broke down. The wind blew mud and sand over them, and when rain fell, the mud stuck to the buildings. In this way, the whole city was covered in mud, and as more and more mud and sand were deposited by the wind, a mound was formed. Harappa and the other cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were discovered when such mounds were excavated, or dug up.



Picture Credit : Google



 

What is the Indus Valley Civilization? Where did it flourish?


       The Indus Valley Civilization existed around five thousand years ago on the plains of the Indus River. It flourished in the Bronze Age. From about 2600 B.C. to 1700 BC, a vast number of settlements were built on the banks of the Indus River and the surrounding areas.



       These settlements cover a remarkable region, almost 1.3 million square kilometres of land, which is today part of Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India. The Indus Valley Civilization was a great city civilization. In a city civilization, most of the people live in cities. They were artisans and traders, soldiers and administrators. Of course, there were also people living in villages who cultivated the land and raised cattle. The people in the cities got their grain and food from these villages. We must remember though, that the city civilization of the Indus valley developed from the village life of an earlier period. When the villages became too big, they needed a strong administration. They also began to produce excess grain, so that the people could devote themselves to other activities besides farming. This led to the growth of cities and city civilizations like that of the Indus Valley.



Picture Credit : Google



 

Are there other Neolithic sites in India?


       In addition to Mehrgarh, other famous Neolithic sites in India are in Kashmir and eastern Rajasthan. There were also settlements in the Indus Delta including Punjab and Haryana, Amri, Kot Diji, Rehman Dheri,  Kalibangan and Banawali.



       Burzahom was the first Neolithic site to be discovered in Kashmir. Burzahom means ‘place of birch’ in Kashmiri. This is because there are many birch trees in the area. There is something unusual about the earliest Neolithic homes at Burzahom. They were below ground level. The people dug pits into the ground with the help of stone tools. They plastered the sides of the pits with mud. Living in these pits was a way in which the early Neolithic people of Burzahom tried to keep snug and warm in the bitterly cold winter. After the discovery and excavation of Burzahom, many other Neolithic sites were discovered in Kashmir at places such as Begagund, Gofkral, Hariparigom, Olchibag, Pampur, Panzgom, Sombur Waztal, and Brah. The types of houses and tools at these sites are similar to those of Burzahom. This shows us that the Neolithic cultures in different parts of our country had their own special features.



Picture Credit : Google



 

Why is Mehrgarh an important place in the Neolithic Age?


        Do you know when Man started farming for the first time? Mehrgarh finds a unique place in history because it was one of the earliest agricultural communities in the world. It was situated in Baluchistan, now in Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming. Wheat and barley were grown, and the farmers kept herds of cattle, sheep and goats. The people of Mehrgarh lived in brick houses, and stored their grain in granaries.



       They also learned to line their baskets with clay to make them waterproof. Mehrgarh was occupied from around 7000 BC. Pottery, dating back to around 5000 BC, was discovered there. Beautiful ornaments were also made from conch shells, lapis lazuli and turquoise beads. The first evidence of drilling a tooth on a living person was also discovered in Mehrgarh!



Picture Credit : Google



 

How did the New Stone Age bring about a silent revolution on Earth?


       When did Man stop wandering about and settle somewhere? About 10,000 years ago, in the Middle East, human beings learnt the skills of agricultural cultivation and raising cattle. This marked the beginning of the Neolithic Era. Man learnt that hunting wild animals and gathering fruits and plants were not the only ways of getting food.



       They learnt to cultivate plants and domesticate animals. When human beings learnt how to produce their own food, their lives changed. This process is so important that we call it a revolution. The first plants they cultivated were cereals. In India, it was mainly rice and wheat. The first domesticated animals were dogs, horses, goats, sheep and oxen.



       People needed to live near fertile land to cultivate cereals. They stopped wandering around to find food, and settled down in one place. They built villages, usually situated next to rivers. Their houses were built of sticks and mud, and the villages had fences to keep out wild animals. Therefore, the New Stone Age ushered in new ideas, and a new way of life.



       However, the move from a hunter-gatherer to a farming lifestyle did not take place overnight. It was a gradual process, a silent revolution that laid the foundation for life as we know it today.



Picture Credit : Google



 

What is the significance of the New Stone Age?


        The New Stone Age or Neolithic Age is considered to be very important because it marked the beginning of more settled life for mankind.



        The earliest Neolithic settlements were discovered in the valleys of Iraq, Iran, Israel and Palestine. One reason for this change was that it became harder and harder to find food just by gathering and hunting. Another reason was that the climate was becoming warmer and plants were growing well in this warm climate. Therefore, people started to grow plants for food, and to herd sheep and goats. This meant that they had to stay in one place, and slowly the first villages began to appear.



Picture Credit : Google



 

What is the Mesolithic Age?


          The Stone Age consists of three eras. The Palaeolithic era was the Old Stone Age. Then there was the New Stone Age, called the Neolithic era. In between the two, there was the Mesolithic era, which means the Middle Stone Age. ‘Meso’ in Greek means middle, or intermediate.



          The people of the Mesolithic Era lived mainly by gathering food and hunting. They did not farm, use metal or build houses. The Mesolithic people lived in caves. They made sharp tools from flint, bone, wood, antler etc. They domesticated dogs from wild wolves, took fish from the waterways, and managed to thrive, despite harsh living conditions.



          The famous Bhimbetka caves near Bhopal belong to the Mesolithic Age. You can see beautiful cave paintings here, done with natural red and white pigments. These paintings show wild animals, hunting scenes, rituals and scenes from the daily life of this era. Remains of the Mesolithic Age have also been found in Bagor, in Rajasthan.



Picture Credit : Google



 


 


Did the Palaeolithic people stay in one place?


          There was no organized farming then, and so, the Palaeolithic people had to wander from place to place in search of food. They lived near streams or rivers, so that they could get rocks for tools, and enough water for their needs. They did not know how to build a home. Usually, they would live in caves or natural rock shelters.



          Gradually, Palaeolithic Man used his tools to cut branches, and he used these branches to make a sort of roof over a simple arrangement of stones. He ate the animals he killed, along with seeds and fruits.



          Palaeolithic men wore clothes made of animal fur, leaves and bark. They lived from day to day, and yet there was beauty in their lives too, as can be seen from the many paintings they made on the walls of caves.



Picture Credit : Google



 


 


Why, and how, did Ancient Man use stone tools?


        Man’s invention of tools was probably the greatest milestone in his intellectual growth.



        The Palaeolithic period is the earliest period of human existence, and Man did not know about metals at that time. He, however, did discover that by hitting one rock with another, pieces of stone would chip off, and the first rock would become sharp. He used this sharpened rock as an instrument for cutting and scraping. Early Man learnt to make fire by striking two stones together, and then, he used fire to split rocks to make his tools.



        Later, he learnt to make sharp points for arrow and spear heads. Gradually, wood was used to make handles for crude axes and hammers. Slowly, the tools made by Man became more effective and efficient, not only in killing animals, but also in skinning dead animals. The skins were then used for protection against the cold. Stone Age tools have been found in hilly areas in present day Pakistan, Kashmir, Rajasthan, south Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and other parts of Peninsular India.



Picture Credit : Google



 


 


What does the word ‘Palaeolithic’ mean?


 



 



          Do you think that the term ‘Palaeolithic’ sounds complicated? In fact, the word is made up of two parts- ‘Palaeo’ and ‘lithic’, and each part has a meaning. ‘Palaeo’ means old, and ‘lithic’ is derived from the Greek word ‘lithos’, which means stone. The earliest people all over the world are said to belong to the Palaeolithic Age because they used weapons made of stone. You can still see these weapons in many of the museums of the world.



Picture Credit : Google



 

How did Prehistoric Man live?


          Can you imagine Man living without all modern facilities and knowledge? Ancient man had none of the advantages of modern times, and was the primitive prototype of the modern human. The early Man wandered from place to place in search of food about 2.5 million years ago. He lived mainly by hunting, and he killed animals with weapons made of stone. So, this era was called the Old Stone Age, and also the Palaeolithic Era. In those days, animals had the advantage over people.



          Animals like the deer and the leopard could run faster than Man. Other animals had sharp claws and teeth to defend themselves, while animals like the elephant and rhinoceros were much stronger than man. Human beings somehow had to find ways to protect themselves, and to kill animals for food. Therefore, they learnt to make weapons from stones, and this marked an important step in their development.



Picture Credit : Google



 


How can I forget about him?



I love a guy who is my senior in school. I love him very much but I don’t think we can be in a relationship because after 1 year we both will leave school and go to different places. So I started ignoring him. But after a few days I started talking to him again. How can I forget about him and pay attention to my future plans?



You do not have to “forget about him” because a good friendship can exist and grow even when people cannot be physically close. Friendship and love grow from the heart and make life beautiful and worth living. Modern means of communication like the cell phone, internet, etc., make it possible for people to remain in touch and share their life and problems even when they are far away from each other. If both of you agree to continue your friendship, carry it on without fear. When you both grow up it will towards clear in which direction you should go: either towards a lasting friendship or a more close and exclusive relationship of love.



 



Picture Credit : Google



 


He doesn’t love me



I am in Std IX. I love a guy who is Std XII but he doesn’t love me. He loves someone else. At some point of time, I thought I would get over him but I can’t as I love him so very much and I meet him everyday face to face. I think he knows that I love him but he hasn’t talked about it to me ever. I love him very much. I have never told him about my feelings directly. What should I do? Should I express my feelings to him or not?



You meet every day face to face a guy you “love so much” but never had the courage to tell him about your feelings. You know that he “loves someone else” but cannot get over him. You think that he knows that you love him but he hasn’t talked about it to you. You are living a dream of love without any connection with reality. Awake from you dream and realize that love has to be borne from both sides and then only it will be experienced and shared. Respect his feelings and do not interfere with his love relationship with someone else.



 



Picture Credit : Google


Something is disturbing our friendship


I am 15-year-old girl in Std IX. Every time I think that I’m comfortable with my friends something or the other disturbs our friendship. My best friend was very close to me last year, but this year she’s in another class and our bond is not as strong as before. I feel that she has started to avoid me. When I think of making new friends something stops me and reminds me of our friendship. I am very confused. By the way this in not disturbing my studies but I’m not able to take part in the co-curricular activities of school as before. Please help me.



Teenagers need to feel secure and accepted in their relationships with other teenage friends, going with the crowd and doing what they do (e.g., dress code, jargon and behaviour). When a peer relationship breaks down teenagers worry because they feel insecure and fear it may affect the rest of their life. In your situation you feel confused and insecure about what to do: “I am very confused”. You are afraid of making new friends, because your heart is still attached to your former best friend. The time has come now to open your heart and mind to new friends and build again with them the good and strong bond you had built with your former best friend. Your past experience will help you to enjoy more beautiful and lasting relationships for the rest of your life.



 



Picture Credit : Google