HOW IS A ROCK ARCH CREATED?

When a high, rocky outcrop juts out into the water, the crashing of waves over the years erodes the base. If the layer of rock higher up stays intact as the base is worn through, a natural rock arch is carved out.

Most people understand that erosion plays an important role in creating arches and bridges. A natural rock arch is formed by erosion. There are two types of erosive forces that account for most arches and bridges – weather erosion and water erosion.

If a crack forms in the soft layers of a sandstone fin, it allows wind to penetrate into the rock. In the desert, winds are common, and they carry lots of sand – kind of like a natural sandblaster – this can cause the cracks to widen. Acidic rain can accumulate in these cracks, chemically weakening the rock. Then, freezing and thawing frosts can cause fractured sections of rock to break off. With enough time, the constant cycle of wind, ice and rain will form an arch. This is weather erosion, and most arches and bridges throughout the world were formed this way.

Water erosion relies, as the name suggests, almost entirely on running water to create arches and bridges. Streams and rivers may eventually cut through a fin of sandstone (this is how Rainbow Bridge was formed) or acidic rain-water might pool in depressions and create an arch from above (Double Arch in Arches National Park is the perfect example of this).

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WHAT IS A SHINGLE BEACH?

When stone, pebbles and small rocks are deposited along the coast, they create a porous layer that is not as tightly packed together as sand is. These are shingle beaches. Common to New Zealand, Japan and the United Kingdom, shingle beaches support little vegetation and mostly have lichen-covered rocks.

The term shingle beach refers to a beach along any body of water that is made up of stones, pebbles, and other small rocks. These materials, also known as shingles, may vary in size from 2 to 200 millimeters and can also be mixed with other sediments, like sand or silt. Shingle beaches are primarily characterized by a steep profile, which means the area further inland sits at a higher elevation than the section of the beach found along the water. These beaches are located along a number of geological formations, including spits, barrier islands, and pocket beaches. Since the stones and pebbles that make up these beaches do not fit tightly together, they create a rather porous environment. These large pores prevent the beach from retaining any significant amount of water, although they also prevent evaporation in the soil below. Many shingle beaches can be found in New Zealand, Japan, and the United Kingdom.

Geologists have linked the formation of many shingle beaches to areas around the world that were subjected to glaciation during the Pleistocene era. These areas tend to be located at higher latitudes, and glaciers brought with them rocks and pebbles that were deposited on the shorelines. Sometimes the rocks and pebbles on shingle beaches are deposited by rivers that empty into the ocean. Additionally, shingle beaches may be formed from intense wave activity that erodes larger pieces of rock located further inland. Over time, continued wave activity carries these large pieces of sediment onto the shores, depositing the biggest pieces further from the water and at higher elevations. The composition of these beaches works to decrease the strength of the tide as it moves back out to the ocean.

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WHAT IS A WADI?

A wadi is a freshwater ecosystem and a type of fluvial landform, which is considered any type of geological feature that is related to rivers or streams. The term wadi comes from both the Arabic and Hebrew languages. Specifically, it refers to a dry riverbed that contains water during rainy seasons and is located in a valley-like area of the desert.

Characteristics Of a Wadi

Wadis are generally located in the flat or slightly rolling areas of deserts and often leads to dry lakes as well. A wadi can be recognized by its braided appearance, which is caused by a lack of constant water flow and an excess of sediment build-up. Sometimes, this sediment may collect in significant amounts, blocking water flow and effectively changing the direction of seasonal rivers. In addition to the low water levels, wind also affects sediment buildup by bringing in dry sands that collect on top of moist sand.

The bottoms of wadis are often covered in sand and loose gravel. The lower levels of this sediment are often packed very densely. This means that during rainy season, water is not quickly absorbed by the ground and has nowhere to drain, resulting in rapid flooding. Flash flooding in wadis is made even more dangerous because of the previously mentioned directional changes, which can send waters into communities unexpectedly.

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WHAT IS A SYNCLINE AND AN ANTICLINE?

It is important to note that syncline and anticline do not necessarily relate to the shape or orientation of folded layers, although the origin of the words implies this. The term originates from the Greek word sun (xun), meaning together, and the Greek word klei, meaning to lean, so syncline implies leaning together or leaning towards. Ant is the Greek prefix meaning opposite or opposing, so the word anticline implies oppositely leaning. Beds dip towards the fold axis in a syncline and away from the fold axis in an anticline only when the folded layers were upright before folding (i.e., where younger layers overlaid older layers). Before describing folds, it is therefore necessary to establish the primary order in which layers were deposited. To do this, facing, younging, or way-up criteria are used. These are synonymous terms for primary sedimentary structures (e.g., graded or cross-bedding) or igneous structures (e.g., vesicles, pillows) preserved in the folded layers. Where the relative ages of rocks are not known (as is often the case in metamorphic rocks), the term synform and not syncline should be used to describe folds where layers are bent downwards so that they dip towards the fold axis, and antiform and not anticline should be used where beds are arched upwards so that layers dip away from the fold axis.

Where rock layers have been inverted prior to folding, such as by folding about a larger fold with a shallowly inclined axial surface, the oldest rocks now occur in the core of folds where layers dip towards the fold axis. Such folds are called synformal anticlines; synformal because of their shape and anticline because of the relative ages of folded layers. The youngest layers in an overturned sequence occur in the core of folds called antiformal synclines where layers dip away from the fold axis.

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WHICH IS THE WORLD'S HIGHEST MOUNTAIN?

Mount Everest in the Himalayas in Asia, with its peak at 8848 m above sea level. Mount Everest, China-Nepal border Syncline Anticline.

If you ask almost anyone to name the highest mountain in the world, their answer will probably be "Mount Everest." Mount Everest, located on the border between China and Nepal, has an altitude of 8,848.86 meters (29,031.69 feet) - making it the highest mountain in the world. The altitude of 8,848.86 meters is officially recognized by China and Nepal. Both countries agreed to use the elevation of the mountain's snow cap, rather than a bedrock elevation of 8,844 meters.

Mount Everest is called the world's highest mountain because it has the "highest elevation above sea level." We could also say that it has the "highest altitude."

The peak of Mount Everest is 8,848.86 meters (29,031.69 feet) above sea level. No other mountain on Earth has a higher altitude. However, some mountains might be considered "taller" (with taller being "the total vertical distance between their base and their summit")

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WHO STUDIES ROCKS AND MINERALS?

A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences are also useful. Field research (field work) is an important component of geology, although many subdisciplines incorporate laboratory and digitalised work.

Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors searching for natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, precious and base metals. They are also in the forefront of preventing and mitigating damage from natural hazards and disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions.

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WHAT IS FLUORITE?

Fluorite is a very popular mineral, and it naturally occurs in all colors of the spectrum. It is one of the most varied colored minerals in the mineral kingdom, and the colors may be very intense and almost electric. Pure Fluorite is colorless; the color variations are caused by various impurities. Some colors are deeply colored, and are especially pretty in large well-formed crystals, which Fluorite often forms. Sometimes coloring is caused by hydrocarbons, which can be removed from a specimen by heating. Some dealers may apply oil treatment upon amateur Fluorite specimens to enhance luster.

Fluorite has interesting cleavage habits. The perfect cleavage parallel to the octahedral faces can sometimes be peeled off to smooth out a crystal into a perfect octahedron. Many crystals, especially larger ones, have their edges or sections chipped off because of the cleavage.

Fluorite is one of the more famous fluorescent minerals. Many specimens strongly fluoresce, in a great variation of color. In fact, the word "fluorescent" is derived from the mineral Fluorite. The name of the element fluorine is also derived from Fluorite, as Fluorite is by far the most common and well-known fluorine mineral.

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WHY ARE AMETHYSTS PURPLE?

The color in amethyst comes from color centers in the quartz. These are created when trace amounts of iron are irradiated ( from the natural radiation in the rocks).

The purple color in ghost town glass comes from small amounts of manganese in the glass when it has been exposed to ultraviolet light. The manganese was used as a clarifying ingredient in glass from 1860 to 1915. Prior to that, lead was used, and subsequently, selenium is used.

Quartz will commonly contain trace amounts of iron ( in the range of 10's to 100's parts per million of iron). Some of this iron sits in sites normally occupied by silicon and some is interstitial (in sites where there is normally not an atom). The iron is usually in the +3 valence state.

Gamma ray radiation can knock an electron from an iron lattice site and deposit the electron in an interstitial iron. This +4 iron absorbs certain wavelengths (357 and 545 nanometers) of light causing the amethyst color. You need to have quartz that contains the right amounts of iron and then is subjected to enough natural radiation to cause the color centers to form.

The color of amethyst has been demonstrated to result from substitution by irradiation of trivalent iron (Fe+3) for silicon in the structure, in the presence of trace elements of large ionic radius, and, to a certain extent, the amethyst color can naturally result from displacement of transition elements even if the iron concentration is low.

Amethyst occurs in primary hues from a light pinkish violet to a deep purple. Amethyst may exhibit one or both secondary hues, red and blue. The best varieties of amethyst can be found in Siberia, Sri Lanka, Brazil and the far East. The ideal grade is called "Deep Siberian" and has a primary purple hue of around 75–80%, with 15–20% blue and (depending on the light source) red secondary hues.

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WHAT ARE VALUABLE MINERALS?

Valuable minerals are either metal or rock that can be processed and converted for economic purposes. Gemstones such as diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are valuable minerals. Gold and silver are also precious. Palladium is considered more precious than gold and it is very valuable to automotive industries.

Diamond

Diamond is commercially the most popular mineral because of its eminent role in the world of jewelry trading.

 Rubies

Rubies are considered to be the most expensive gemstones in the world. They get their alluring red color from the presence of chromium. The largest supply of this mineral was harvested in Burma, which is known as the Mecca for rubies.

Gold

Many people think gold is the most valuable and most expensive mineral in the world, but this is a common misconception because there are other minerals that are far more worthy than gold. Still, it is a highly valued, expensive mineral.

Rhodium

Because of its rarity and industrial application, this silver-white noble metal is the world’s most expensive mineral. Rhodium became popular as a result of its highly valued catalytic application in the automotive industry. The largest supply of this mineral was found in 2009 in South Africa and Russia.

Lithium

This mineral which is commonly known as a crucial ingredient in the production of rechargeable batteries was first discovered in 1817 in Stockholm by the Swedish chemist Johan August Arfvedson. Lithium is a highly valued mineral which represents a billion dollar industry. The largest supplies of this mineral are found in Afghanistan.

Blue Garnet

Garnets can be found in various colors like brown, green, orange, pink, purple, red and yellow. Among all these colors the blue garnet is the only one with a considerably high value. This mineral was first discovered in the 1990s in Madagascar, and since then it has been mined in Russia, Turkey and the United States.

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WHY ARE DIAMONDS EXTRAORDINARY?

Very hard, very rare and very old, diamonds are essentially carbon that has been transformed under great pressure deep inside Earth. It is usually volcanic activity that brings them near the surface again after billions of years and makes mining possible. Diamonds are the hardest natural substance ever found.

  1. The ancient Romans and Greeks believed that diamonds were tears cried by the gods or splinters from falling stars, and Romans believed that Cupid’s arrows were tipped with diamonds (perhaps the earliest association between diamonds and romantic love).
  2. Diamonds are nearly as old as the earth and take billions of years to form deep in the pit of the earth. Very few diamonds survive the trip from the depths of the earth to the crust where they can be mined. No two diamonds are the same and carry their own unique properties such as internal inclusions and color. 
  3. Diamonds form about 100 miles below ground and have been carried to the earth’s surface by deep volcanic eruptions.
  4. Diamonds are made of a single element—they are nearly 100% carbon. Under the extreme heat and pressure far below the earth’s surface, the carbon atoms bond in a unique way that results in diamonds’ beautiful and rare crystalline structure.
  5. The word diamond derives from the Greek word “adamas,” which means invincible or indestructible.
  6. Diamonds are the hardest natural substance on earth ranking a 10 on the Mohs Scale of Hardness. The only thing that can scratch a diamond’s surface is another diamond.
  7. Diamonds have been valued and coveted for thousands of years by the likes of royalty and mythical beings. There is evidence that diamonds were being collected and traded in India as early as the fourth century BC. In the first century AD, the Roman naturalist Pliny is quoted as having said, “Diamond is the most valuable, not only of precious stones, but of all things in this world.”
  8. Ancient Hindus used diamonds in the eyes of devotional statues and believed that a diamond could protect its wearer from danger.
  9. Many ancient cultures believed that diamonds gave the wearer strength and courage during battle, and some kings wore diamonds on their armor as they rode into battle.
  10. During the Middle Ages diamonds were thought to have healing properties able to cure ailments ranging from fatigue to mental illness. 

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WHAT ARE MINERALS?

Minerals are natural chemicals from which Earth's crust is formed. There are around 2000 individual minerals, each with a unique colour and shape. A few are powdery or resinous, but most are crystals. Some minerals, such as gold and silver, are pure chemical elements, but the majority are compounds, of which silicates are most common.

The earth is composed of mineral elements, either alone or in a myriad of combinations called compounds. A mineral is composed of a single element or compound. By definition, a mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a definite chemical composition and ordered atomic structure.

  • Table salt is a mineral called sodium chloride. Its ordered structure is apparent because it occurs in crystals shaped like small cubes.
  • Another common mineral is quartz, or silicon dioxide. Its crystals have a specific hexagonal shape. Coal is a mineral composed entirely of carbon, originally trapped by living organisms through the process of photosynthesis.
  • The carbon in coal is therefore of organic origin which leads some authorities to object to the definition of a mineral as an inorganic substance.
  • Limestone is a rock composed of a single mineral calcium carbonate. On the basis of their origin on earth rocks may be divided into three primary categories: igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.

Minerals have been broadly classified into two classes, primary minerals and secondary minerals. Minerals which were formed by igneous process that is from the cooling down of the molten materials called magma, have been put in the primary category, while those formed by other processes have been put in the secondary category. Primary minerals which occur in the sand fractions of the soil had not undergone any change.

Other primary minerals had been altered to form the secondary minerals for example, the primary mineral mica had been altered to form the secondary mineral illite. Some other primary minerals for example, olivine, anorthite, hornblende etc., had been completely decomposed; the decomposition products recombined together to form the secondary minerals.

Minerals may be identified by their crystal structure, physical properties and chemical composition.

Like vitamins, minerals help your body grow, evolve and remain healthy. The body uses minerals to perform many functions — from building strong bones to nerve impulse transmission. Some minerals also create hormones or hold a regular heartbeat.

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ARE GEMS AND CRYSTALS THE SAME?

Crystals are glassy-looking, brittle solids that form shapes with sharp corners and flat sides. Natural crystals form when a liquid cools and hardens, and the molecules in the liquid cluster in a particular pattern - a pyramid, cube, etc.

Rare and beautiful crystals such as rubies and emeralds are valued as gems. Many are termed 'precious'. They are rare because they only form naturally under very special conditions - usually deep within volcanic rocks.

Crystals are pure substances whose atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an ordered pattern, where they extend in all three spatial dimensions. A gem can be a crystal, while a crystal cannot be called as a gem.

Gemstone and Crystals are both used in various applications in today’s world. While gemstones are primarily used in jewelry and decoration pieces, crystals can be used in various applications such as healing, jewelry, vases, scientific purposes, etc.

Gemstones are rare pieces of minerals that are found in the ground, which are then cut and polished to be used in jewelry and other decorative pieces. Not all gems are minerals, such as lapis lazuli, a rock, and amber or jet, which are organic materials. A gemstone can also be known as precious or semi-precious stones. Precious stones include diamonds, emerald, ruby and sapphire, while the rest are qualified as semi-precious stones. Gemstones are classified by their color, translucency and hardness. Gems can also come with mineral bases like diamonds or rubies and with organic bases like amber. Today, geologists use the chemical composition of a gemstone to classify it into groups, species and varieties. The price of the gemstones depends on the rarity, color, composition, hardness and cut.

Crystals are pure substances whose atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an ordered pattern, where they extend in all three spatial dimensions. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification. Not all crystals need to be in solid formation, where water freezing also begins with small ice crystals that grow. Crystal symmetry requires that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. Crystals are classified as Hexagonal, cubic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, rhombohedral, and monoclinic shapes. Crystals are light in color and are mostly translucent. The color of crystal is determined by the light passing through it.  Crystals are less expensive compared to gemstones. Salt and snowflakes are the most common types of crystals that are encountered.

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WHAT ARE SILICATES?

When silicon and oxygen, the two most common chemical elements on Earth, combine with a metal, they forma silicate. There are over 500 silicates that exist, quartz is one.

Silicate mineral, any of a large group of silicon-oxygen compounds that are widely distributed throughout much of the solar system.

The silicates make up about 95 percent of Earth’s crust and upper mantle, occurring as the major constituents of most igneous rocks and in appreciable quantities in sedimentary and metamorphic varieties as well. They also are important constituents of lunar samples, meteorites, and most asteroids. In addition, planetary probes have detected their occurrence on the surfaces of Mercury, Venus, and Mars. Of the approximately 600 known silicate minerals, only a few dozen—a group that includes the feldspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, olivines, feldspathoids, and zeolites—are significant in rock formation.

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WHICH ROCKS ARE COMMONLY USED FOR BUILDINGS?

Many types of stones are available such as basalt, marble, limestone, sandstone, quartzite, travertine, slate, gneiss, laterite, and granite, which can be used as construction materials. The stones used for building construction should be hard, durable, tough, and should be free from weathered soft patches of material, cracks, and other defects that are responsible for the reduction of strength and durability. Stones for construction purposes are obtained by quarrying from massive solid rocks.

Each type of stone lends itself to various construction applications based on its properties. For instance, certain types like basalt and granite have superior characteristics like high compressive strength and durability and hence employed in major construction works. However, there are stones that their characteristic makes them suitable for minor construction works, for example, gneiss. So, stones are used as a building material and also for decorative purposes.

TYPES OF BUILDING STONES

Some of the common building stones which are used for different purposes in India are as follows:

GRANITE

It is a deep-seated igneous rock, which is hard, durable and available in various colours. It has a high value of crushing strength and is capable of bearing high weathering.

BASALT AND TRAP

They are originated from igneous rocks in the absence of pressure by the rapid cooling of the magma.

TRAP STONE

They have the same uses as granite. Deccan trap is a popular stone of this group in South India.

LIMESTONE

Limestone is used for flooring, roofing, pavements and as a base material for cement. It is found in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

SANDSTONE

This stone is another form of sedimentary rock formed by the action of mechanical sediments. It has a sandy structure which is low in strength and easy to dress.

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WHAT IS PUDDING STONE?

A mixture of different-sized pebbles cemented by sand, formed in river channels over thousands of years. It looks a bit like a Christmas pudding.

Puddingstone is a nonscientific name for a conglomerate in which subrounded to rounded pebbles occur in a matrix of sharply contrasting color.

The name "puddingstone" was first used in Great Britain where the rocks were said to "look like a plum pudding". A well-known example is the Hertfordshire Puddingstone, from the lower Eocene of the London Basin. It consists of colorful flint pebbles in a white to brown silicate matrix. It is a rock found at many locations in Hertfordshire County, England.

Puddingstones immediately catch the eye of the geologist and the eyes of people who otherwise have no special interest in rocks. People have an immediate interest in the rocks and carry them home from beaches, streams, and wherever they are found.

Many particularly nice specimens find a place on desks, bookshelves, window sills and other locations where they will be seen by and delight even more people. Their popularity greatly exceeds their abundance.

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