My Science School

When the COVID-19 pandemic hit us way back in 2020, several regions across the world went into lockdown. Around the same time, several stories of wildlife sightings at unusual places surfaced. A group of animal movement researchers tells us more about what could have caused this.

At some point in 2020, more than half the world's population was said to have been under lockdown. With hardly any human movement, many bustling places became quiet. That was when "cougars were seen prowling through the suburbs of Santiago, Chile, golden jackals became more active during the day in Tel Aviv, Israel, and dolphins appeared in the normally busy harbour of Trieste, Italy". This made animal movement researchers wonder if human movement impacted animal movement or if humans were simply noticing animal presence better during the pandemic. And so, they commenced the COVID-19 Bio-Logging Initiative. Many of the researchers were already studying animals and recording their movements through GPS tags, etc. The devices continued their work during the lockdown too, helping them compare animal movement during and before the pandemic.

Their data showed movements for thousands of animals, "from 43 species including elephants, giraffes, bears, deer and cougars". The researchers could "look at how their behaviour and movement patterns changed during the lockdowns in 2020 compared to the same period one year earlier”. Both humans and the structures (including buildings and vehicles) they build can impact animal mobility, and the study showed this- "mammals were 36 per cent closer to roads during lockdown, and that their movement distances over ten days were 73 per cent longer during strict lockdowns compared to the same period one year earlier”. The researchers feel that less traffic could have helped mammals get closer to roads while absence of humans could have prompted them to explore new areas.

But not all species demonstrated this change, indicating difference in lockdown policies among countries and "differences between species in their ability to change behavior”. It is likely that "some species are more flexible in how they respond to changes in human activities".

The findings of the study point to how humans impact animal behaviour. "With this knowledge we can start to think of new ways to change our behaviour that will positively impact wildlife."

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Though the summer season is almost over, the love for mangoes is not. Recently, the world's most expensive mango Miyazaki was showcased in the seventh edition of three-day-long mango festival in West Bengal Let us discover some interesting facts about mangoes.

Origin

Mango, a member of the cashew family, is native to southern Asia, especially Myanmar and Assam. However, today numerous varieties of mangoes are grown in various parts of the world such as Africa Apple mango, Kent mango, Tommy mango, and Ngowe mango, are different varieties of Kenyan mango.

Though the tree is evergreen, the finer varieties of mangoes are grown in a well-marked dry season. The mango trees begin to blossom in the months of March and April. Its scientific name is ‘Mangifera indica.’

Often nicknamed the 'king of fruits’, the name is likely to have been derived from the Malayalam ‘manna’, which the Portuguese adopted as manga when they came to Kerala in 1498 for the spice trade.

It is said that legendary Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang had carried back stories about the uniqueness of the fruit. There are numerous folk tales around the mango According to one such folk tale, a royal courtesan in the kingdom of Vaishali was named Amrapali because she was found under a mango tree as a baby

Traditional significance

It is an indicator of national happiness and fulfilment Mentions of mangoes can be found in the ‘Puranas’ and epics such as ‘The Ramayana’ and ‘The Mahabharata’

During religious ceremonies mango leaves are hung by a string. It is said that the mango tree provided shade and solace to Gautam Buddha on one of his spiritual journeys.

Nutritional benefit

Mangoes help improve immunity and play an important role in digestion. They are low in calories and are the best choice when reducing calorific intake. They are rich in vitamins A, C and D.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has three outstanding centres involved in mango research: the Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture at Lucknow, the Indian Institute of Horticultural Research at Bengaluru, and the Fruit Research Station at Sangareddy in Telangana.

Story of Alphonso

The Alphonso mango derives its name from Afonso de Albuquerque, a Portuguese military expert who led Portuguese invasions into India in the 1600s. The Portuguese helped in introducing varieties of mangoes in India such as Alphonso. The Alphonso was introduced to the Konkan region in Maharashtra, Gujarat, and parts of south India

It is said that the fruit was shipped for the first time to London for the Queen's coronation in 1953 from Mumbai's legendary Crawford Market.

Today, the fruit is exported to several countries, including Britain and the United States. Among the best and most expensive of Alphonso are said to grow on a small Natwarlal plantation in Ratnagiri, and are hand-harvested.

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Don't we often come across news about air pollution in our city or surrounding areas and the frequent mention of AQI? But what does AQI stand for and how is it helpful to us? Come, let's find out

AQI is the abbreviation of Air Quality Index. It is a yardstick that shows us how clean or hazardous the air we breathe in in a particular region is. It is a numerical representation of the air quality in a place, which is determined by measuring the level of pollutants present in the air.

Health concerns

With a rapidly growing population and corresponding economic development, India has been grappling with the issue of air pollution for several decades now, leading to health and environmental concerns. Several factors are responsible for the poor air quality in most parts of the country. While natural sources of air pollutants include smog, storms, dust, and wildfires, we humans are responsible for emissions from factories, automobiles, construction activities, stubble burning, fossil fuel burning, etc. These are responsible for the presence of major air pollutants in the country such as particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10), carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, etc.

Exposure to air pollution may lead to severe respiratory illnesses, irritation in the eye, heart disease, and even premature death. Air pollution reduces visibility on the road and may lead to accidents and loss of lives. Besides, it can have a deleterious impact on the environment, damaging crops and trees, affecting yields, causing acid rain, etc.

Launched in 2015

India is home to some of the most polluted cities in the world. In order to address the widely prevalent air pollution crisis, the Government has taken several initiatives. One such is the National Air Quality Index which was officially launched in April 2015 in New Delhi. The NAQI was developed by IIT-Kanpur scientists along with the Central Pollution Control Board. It has been designed to disseminate air quality information to the people. The AQI shows eight pollutants, namely PM2.5, PM10, ammonia, lead, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, ozone, and carbon monoxide.

Colour-coded index

 The colour-coded AQI helps people and the administration understand the condition of the air by providing real-time information on air quality. The index converts data of various pollutants collected from monitoring stations into a single number, name, and colour. The AQI value runs from 0 to 500. There are six AQI categories, namely Good (0-50, green), Satisfactory (51-100, light green), Moderately polluted (101-200, pink), Poor (201-300, yellow), Very Poor (301-400, red), and Severe (401-500, dark red), with each being decided based on the concentration values of air pollutants and their likely health impacts. The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution and the greater the health concern. An AQI value of 50 or below represents good air quality, while an AQI value over 300 represents very poor air quality. There are smartphone apps such as Sameer and SAFAR and websites.

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Saturn's moon now satisfies what is usually considered the strictest requirement for life

The search for extraterrestrial life is now more serious than probably ever before. And the search just got more exciting with a team of scientists discovering new evidence that the subsurface ocean of Enceladus - Saturn's moon- contains a key building block for life phosphorus.

The Cassini spacecraft explored Saturn and its system of rings and moons for more than 13 years. Based on data obtained from this mission, the research team directly found phosphorus in the form of phosphates originating from the ice-covered global ocean on the moon. The results were published in the journal Nature in June.

Our fate and phosphates

In the form of phosphates, phosphorus is necessary for all life on Earth. Be it the creation of DNA and RNA, or the bones and teeth in animals and human beings, life as it is today is impossible without phosphates.

Once the Cassini spacecraft discovered the subsurface liquid water on Saturn's moon Enceladus, it then analysed samples of ice grains and gases erupting from cracks on Enceladus’ surface. When salt-rich ice grains were analysed by Cassini's Cosmic Dust Analyzer, it showed the presence of sodium phosphates.

Life beyond Earth

The team's observational results along with laboratory analogue experiments thus suggest that phosphorus is readily available in Enceladus as phosphates. This makes the discovery a major step forward in the search for life beyond our own Earth.

While worlds like our Earth with surface oceans have to reside in a narrow range of distances from their host stars (to maintain temperatures that support surface water), interior ocean worlds can occur over a large range of distances. This is true within our solar system and beyond. The presence of phosphates in Enceladus thereby increases the number of habitable worlds potentially possible across the galaxy.

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On July 2, 1900, the first directed flight of the LZ-1, a zeppelin airship, took place in Germany. The man behind it was Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin, who pioneered the cause of building rigid dirigible airships, so much so that his surname is still popularly used as a generic name.

Aeroplanes are now the norm for air travel but there was a brief period early in the aeronautical history when airships or dirigibles were believed capable of playing a crucial role in aviation development. Large, controllable balloons propelled by an engine, airships are one of two types of lighter-than-air aircraft (the other one being well, balloons of course!)

Now relegated to aerial observations, advertising and other areas where staying aloft is more important than movement, airships come in three main types: the non-rigid airships or blimps, the semi-rigid airships, and the rigid airships, often called zeppelins. The last category is more popular as zeppelins because it was a German man called Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin who conceived and developed the first rigid dirigible.

Born in Konstanz, Germany on July 8, 1938, Zeppelin studied at the University of Tubingen before entering the Prussian Army in 1858. He travelled to the U.S. during the American Civil War and acted as a military observer for the Union Army.

An idea is born

It was during this time, in 1863, when Zeppelin had the first of several balloon ascensions at St. Paul, Minnesota. While he was quick to realise the weakness of free balloons, their overdependence on winds and their uncontrollability, it was an experience that stayed with him through a lifetime.

By the 1870s, the idea of building a steerable airship had taken shape in Zeppelin's mind. So when he retired from the army with the rank of brigadier general, he decided to devote himself to building these airships.

Zeppelin toiled for a decade even though there were many naysayers. By 1900, he had built the first rigid-body airship consisting of a long, uniform cylinder with rounded ends. At 420 feet long and 38 feet in diameter, it had a hydrogen gas capacity of nearly 3,99,000 cubic feet.

Flies from a floating hangar

 From a floating hangar on Lake Constance, Germany, the initial flight of LZ-1, the first zeppelin, took place on July 2, 1900. Days away from turning 62, Zeppelin had finally made progress with an idea that had been with him for decades.

While the demonstration wasn't entirely successful, the craft attained speeds of nearly 32 km/hour, enough to spark enthusiasm around zeppelins, get more donations, and have enough funding to keep the progress happening. Zeppelin tirelessly worked to make new and improved dirigibles and even created the first commercial passenger air service with them by 1910, but it wasn't until World War I that support from the government finally came in.

With most aeroplanes still in the development phase, the Germans perceived the advantages of zeppelin-type rigid airships, which could not only attain higher altitudes than aeroplanes of the time, but also remain airborne for nearly 100 hours. More than 100 zeppelins were employed by the Germans for military operations during World War I.

Hindenburg disaster

Zeppelin died in 1917, without seeing the heights that his zeppelins reached, and the tragedy that followed. The LZ-127 ‘Graf Zeppelin’ was launched in 1927 and it was one of the largest ever built. Having a length more than that of two-and-a-half football fields, it made a number of trans-Atlantic flights.

The LZ-129 ‘Hindenburg’ came about in 1936 and was touted to become the most famous zeppelin ever. Instead, tragedy struck and the ‘Hindenburg’ exploded and burned on May 6, 1937 at its mooring mast in New Jersey. (In case you were wondering, the Hindenburg Research investment company, which has constantly been in the news this year following their reports about the Adani Group, was named after this zeppelin.)

The Hindenburg disaster spelt doom for zeppelins as the remaining ones were also taken off service and dismantled. While safety concerns diminished their popularity, they had helped establish the principles of lighter-than-air aircraft and had even been among the first to provide commercial air travel.

Picture Credit : Google 

On July 2, 1900, the first directed flight of the LZ-1, a zeppelin airship, took place in Germany. The man behind it was Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin, who pioneered the cause of building rigid dirigible airships, so much so that his surname is still popularly used as a generic name.

Aeroplanes are now the norm for air travel but there was a brief period early in the aeronautical history when airships or dirigibles were believed capable of playing a crucial role in aviation development. Large, controllable balloons propelled by an engine, airships are one of two types of lighter-than-air aircraft (the other one being well, balloons of course!)

Now relegated to aerial observations, advertising and other areas where staying aloft is more important than movement, airships come in three main types: the non-rigid airships or blimps, the semi-rigid airships, and the rigid airships, often called zeppelins. The last category is more popular as zeppelins because it was a German man called Ferdinand Graf von Zeppelin who conceived and developed the first rigid dirigible.

Born in Konstanz, Germany on July 8, 1938, Zeppelin studied at the University of Tubingen before entering the Prussian Army in 1858. He travelled to the U.S. during the American Civil War and acted as a military observer for the Union Army.

An idea is born

It was during this time, in 1863, when Zeppelin had the first of several balloon ascensions at St. Paul, Minnesota. While he was quick to realise the weakness of free balloons, their overdependence on winds and their uncontrollability, it was an experience that stayed with him through a lifetime.

By the 1870s, the idea of building a steerable airship had taken shape in Zeppelin's mind. So when he retired from the army with the rank of brigadier general, he decided to devote himself to building these airships.

Zeppelin toiled for a decade even though there were many naysayers. By 1900, he had built the first rigid-body airship consisting of a long, uniform cylinder with rounded ends. At 420 feet long and 38 feet in diameter, it had a hydrogen gas capacity of nearly 3,99,000 cubic feet.

Flies from a floating hangar

 From a floating hangar on Lake Constance, Germany, the initial flight of LZ-1, the first zeppelin, took place on July 2, 1900. Days away from turning 62, Zeppelin had finally made progress with an idea that had been with him for decades.

While the demonstration wasn't entirely successful, the craft attained speeds of nearly 32 km/hour, enough to spark enthusiasm around zeppelins, get more donations, and have enough funding to keep the progress happening. Zeppelin tirelessly worked to make new and improved dirigibles and even created the first commercial passenger air service with them by 1910, but it wasn't until World War I that support from the government finally came in.

With most aeroplanes still in the development phase, the Germans perceived the advantages of zeppelin-type rigid airships, which could not only attain higher altitudes than aeroplanes of the time, but also remain airborne for nearly 100 hours. More than 100 zeppelins were employed by the Germans for military operations during World War I.

Hindenburg disaster

Zeppelin died in 1917, without seeing the heights that his zeppelins reached, and the tragedy that followed. The LZ-127 ‘Graf Zeppelin’ was launched in 1927 and it was one of the largest ever built. Having a length more than that of two-and-a-half football fields, it made a number of trans-Atlantic flights.

The LZ-129 ‘Hindenburg’ came about in 1936 and was touted to become the most famous zeppelin ever. Instead, tragedy struck and the ‘Hindenburg’ exploded and burned on May 6, 1937 at its mooring mast in New Jersey. (In case you were wondering, the Hindenburg Research investment company, which has constantly been in the news this year following their reports about the Adani Group, was named after this zeppelin.)

The Hindenburg disaster spelt doom for zeppelins as the remaining ones were also taken off service and dismantled. While safety concerns diminished their popularity, they had helped establish the principles of lighter-than-air aircraft and had even been among the first to provide commercial air travel.

Picture Credit : Google 

Meaning: An adjective, adept means skilled or having a natural ability to do something that requires skill. It is usually followed by at. As a noun, it corresponds to an expert or a proficient person.

Origin: The term adept is derived from Latin adeptus meaning achieved. Adeptus is the past participle of adipisci which means 'obtain, attain. The word has been in use in English since the mid-17th Century.

Usage: He is adept at keeping his private life out of the media. He is an adept pianist.

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Meaning:  This is a formal word that refers to a learned person; especially someone with detailed knowledge about a particular subject. The word is also used to refer to a person affected with a developmental disorder who exhibits exceptional skill or brilliance in a particular subject or field.

Origin: Savant comes from the Latin sapere which means to be wise.

Usage: His sister is a computer savant, so he knows he can call her whenever he has technical issues.

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Meaning: The word bulldoze denotes clearing the ground or destroying buildings, trees in order to make an area flat with a bulldozer. It is also used when someone is forced to do something, even though they might not want to do it.

Origin: The word has been around since 1880 and is from an earlier noun, ‘bulldose’. The bull element in the word is likely to be connected to that in bull-whip and might even be directly from that word. The "ground clearing" meaning is from 1942.

Usage: The little greenery that was left in the city was bulldozed to make way for more high-rise buildings.

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Meaning: A noun, the word gambit means a calculated move or a move to gain an advantage.

Origin: The word is borrowed from Spanish word "gambito", which is borrowed from Italian "gambetto" which means the "act of tripping someone". The word was first used in 1656.

Usage: The thrilling opening gambit by the jester’s son had everyone at their wit's end because no suitor could surpass what he had just done.

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Meaning: This noun refers to a light food made from a mixture of beaten egg whites and other ingredients that is baked in the oven.

It can be either sweet or savoury.

Origin: This word has its origin in the French word soufflé, from the past participle of souffle, meaning "to puff up". This, in turn, is from Latin sufflare, from sub (meaning "up from under") + flare ("to blow").

Example: His chocolate soufflé is always incredibly delicious and light.

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Step into the magical world of childhood with acclaimed English author Katherine Rundell, whose adventurous stories have captured the hearts of many young readers in recent years. Read on to discover more about this talented author and her enchanting tales.

Katherine Rundell is a celebrated multiple-award-winning English author whose poetic verse makes words dance on the page like sunlight on a rippling stream. With a heart full of adventure and a mind brimming with creativity, she crafts stories that ignite the imagination of young readers and transport them to magical worlds.

Born in 1987 in Kent, England, Rundell spent her formative years in Zimbabwe and Brussels. Following her undergraduate studies at Oxford, she was chosen as a Fellow of All Souls College, where she completed her doctoral thesis on the renowned metaphysical English poet John Donne. Last September she published the book ‘Super infinite The Transformations of John Donne’, in honour of the 450th anniversary of the poet's birth. This critically acclaimed work won her 2022's Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction. Rundell who is in her mid-thirties now, started working on her debut novel ‘The Girl Savage’ the day after she turned 21. Drawing on her carefree childhood in Zimbabwe, and the devastation of her family relocating to Belgium when she was 14, her debut novel narrated the story of a free-spirited girl called Wilhelmina Silver who has spent most of her childhood on an African farm and is sent to a boarding school in England following the death of her father.

As an imaginative and adventurous storyteller, Rundell intricately weaves her intriguing and quirky personal interests into her characters, whether it is her love for tightrope walking or roof walking or her fascination with the Amazon. Her characters act as an extension of her inner child and her stories (that are generally aimed at middle-grade readers) combine elements of action, adventure, and magical realism. Her tales take the readers on a journey to faraway lands, where they can explore the mysteries of the world and discover beauty in its hidden corners. Some of her most well-known works include ‘The Rooftoppers’ which won the Waterstones Children's Book Prize in 2014, and ‘The Explorer’, which was shortlisted for the Costa Children's Book Award in 2017.

Choosing children's literature

When Katherine Rundell first began writing children's books, it was not because she saw it as her ultimate destination. Rather, she viewed it as a stepping stone, a path to follow in the footsteps of her literary idol Jane Austen. Rundell was acutely aware that her authorship was not at the level she aspired to, and so she turned to the world of children's fiction as a training ground. But as she has grown and developed as an author, she has come to realise that the genre is so much more than a mere proving ground. To suggest that children's literature is simply a place to polish her skills before moving on to "real" writing is a notion that she now passionately rejects

Reading: A way to cope with the loss

Reading is almost exactly the same as cartwheeling: it turns the world upside down and leaves you breathless says Katherine Rundell Reading was a cherished pastime for Randell, especially because it helped her during some of the most difficult years of her life. It was a stressful time for the family, and Rundell was only nine or 10 years old when her parents were caring for a foster sister who was terminally ill. The experience of losing someone so young was deeply saddening and profoundly painful for the author. Yet, she found solace in books devouring them with an insatiable- appetite. Looking back on this time she believes that it was no accident that she writes for the age she was when she experienced such heartache. Despite the pain, Rundell drew those she loved closer and cherished the things that brought her joy, namely, the power of storytelling.

Embracing the wonder of childhood

Rundell's stories are more than just mere escapism; they are tales that inspire and challenge young readers to think deeply and feel connected to the world around them. Her books are important because they offer a glimpse into the human experience that is both universal and uniquely personal. She captures the essence of childhood wonder and joy but also the fear and uncertainty that often come with growing up. Her stories speak to the resilience and ingenuity of the human spirit and encourage readers to embrace their sense of adventure and explore the unknown.

Through her stories, Rundell shows young readers the power of creativity, resilience, and empathy, and why these qualities are essential to making the world a better place. The success of her books is a testament to the power of storytelling to inspire and transform young minds. Through her beautiful and imaginative works, she has created a legacy that will continue to inspire generations of young readers for years to come.

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For some, spending long arduous days walking and climbing the rugged terrains and summiting peaks is a way to recharge themselves. For them, vacationing is not walking across the golden sands of a beach, rather it is undertaking the adventurous sport of trekking. Let's read up on trekking, a sport that can be your stepping stone to its advanced, adventurous version of sport called mountaineering.

It is probably here that it all began. At the summit of the world's tallest mountain- the 29,031 ft tall Mt. Everest.

Edmund Hillary and Sherpa Tenzing Norgay reached the summit of Everest in 1953. Although Everest was attempted before, the duo became the first to stand at the crest of the world's highest mountain. And in no time, the rush to ascend the peak started and continues till date.

If we sift through the pages of history, the first recorded hike was undertaken during the second century. Roman Emperor Hadrian, ascended Mt. Etna to see the sunrise from its summit. Even now, Mt. Etna is a favoured trekking spot among the trekking community.

 For some, climbing mountains, spending long arduous days walking and climbing the rugged terrains, is a way to recharge themselves. For them, vacationing is not walking across the golden sands of a beach, rather it boils down to an adventurous climb on a mountain. We call the adventurous sport trekking. How about learning more about trekking?

Trekking

The thrill to trek and summit the mountains evolved into the adventurous sport we call trekking. Trekking can be defined as walking for several days or weeks on a multitude of terrains, all the while carrying your “world” of essentials with you in your rucksack. You end the day by camping at dusk at camping sites.

How to start

One can get initiated into trekking with hikes. Hikes are small walks undertaken in nature that last a day. At the end of the day, you return to the place when you started the hike. Once you build up your physical strength, you can undertake small treks that last two days or more. As you get better at it, you can change your goals and start eyeing higher perks. Always choose a reputed trekking or adventure club for your treks. Alternatively, you can join the neighbourhood trekking or adventure clubs to embark on hikes or treks. Further, many mountaineering/adventure institutes in India offer courses on the sport. For someone who is serious about climbing, this can be a good place to start with. The trekking seasons will vary depending on the kind of trek you want to undertake. Jammu and Kashmir (Ladakh, Zanskar). Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Darjeeling, Northeast states, the Western Ghats and the Nilgiris are some of the popular regions in India where you can trek.

Gear and physical fitness

For a trekker, the trekking gear is everything. It is something that should never be compromised. Because on the mountains, your gear becomes your lifeline.

Equipping oneself with the proper gear viz. shoes, gloves, right bag, climbing equipment, and so on will make one's trek safe and easy. The trekker also has to be self-sufficient and should be able to carry the essentials in their bag. It goes without saying that one needs to be extremely fit to climb.  

Challenges

Like any adventure activity, trekking also has its own challenges. Weather can change unexpectedly as you climb up the mountains Altitude sickness, dehydration and sunburn are the other emergencies one can come across. A bad footing can be very risky and so is any encounter with wild animals. Following the advice of the trek leader and keeping to the trek trail will help avoid unnecessary problems Lear about the weather conditions before embarking on the trek and prepare yourself accordingly. One of the cardinal rules is to start early to arrive early at the camping site

Why trek

And why do we climb? Why do countless trekkers put themselves through this arduous and painful experience of braving difficult terrains and climates to scale a mountain? Ask any trekker, and the answer will never be the same. But one thing is agreed upon. Trekking helps one disconnect from the outside world and connect with nature and oneself. In fact, it is a journey one undertakes inwards. Be it the indigenous communities you encounter on your trail to the flora and fauna, everything leaves its mark on you. When you come back after a trek, you wouldn't have just climbed a mountain, but you would have learnt many lessons. The mountains humble you and instill in you a new appreciation of the world and its ways. So are you stoked enough to give trekking a try?

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Recently, the European Commission came up with a proposal to create "buzz lines", essentially a network of ecological corridors for pollinators. This is seen as an important step towards arresting the alarming decline of pollinators. But why is this decline alarming and why should we be concerned? Come, let's find out.

What are pollinators?

Pollination is the process by which pollen – a powdery substance-moves from the male part of one flower to the female part of another flower. This movement results in fruits, seeds, and young plants. Pollination occurs in some species when wind or water carries the pollen. However, most plant species require the help of pollinators. These pollinators a wide range of creatures such as bees, wasps, moths, butterflies, birds, flies, and bats-fly from one flower to another for various reasons such as food, shelter, and looking for materials to build nests with. When they flit between flowers thus they end up carrying pollen with them and transferring them to other flowers.

What is causing their decline?

There has been a decline in the population of pollinators, including bees and butterflies globally. While the "excessive use” of pesticides and other chemicals is said to be responsible for much of that decline, there are a lot of other factors too. "Invasive pests and diseases, such as mites and viral and fungal pathogens” play a role in decreasing pollinator numbers. As human activity and infrastructure development increase, pollinators have had to grapple with loss of habitat too. Adding to such aspects are loss of genetic and species diversity and also the negative impact of climate change. The scenario for pollinators look pretty grim right now.

Why are they important?

Pollinators are the ones keeping the planet going, with their crucial ecological function. A huge part of the fruits and vegetables we eat and agricultural crops raised are the result of pollen transferred by pollinators. So, they are vital for food globally. Not just that. Even timber and our clothing are dependent on them since they help the likes of cotton and wood-bearing trees grow. Which means, by helping with food and other industries, pollination services are worth millions of dollars worldwide in addition, the natural habitat they help create supports all kinds of plants and animal life. The billions of plants and trees that grow across the globe clean air by taking in carbon dioxide and giving us oxygen. Further they also prevent soil erosion. So, when the population of pollinators including bees and butterflies, declines, it can cause both an economic and an ecosystem collapse. It has been found that low-income countries lost significant income and crop yields from pollinator deficits, pointing to an economic threat. And without ecosystems, the human race may have no hope of survival. Here's proof. A study found that that 3% to 5% of fruit, vegetable, and nut production is lost due to inadequate pollination, leading to an estimated 427.000 excess deaths annually from lost healthy food consumption and associated diseases".

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Literary scholars have always alluded to the fact that there are many plays by brilliant English playwright William Shakespeare that have not seen the light of day and Cardenio might be the most popular of them all.

Most scholars suggest that The History of Cardenio often simply called Cardenio was written in 1613. As it is one of Shakespeare's later contributions, it is (like many of his later plays) believed to be co-authored.

In the last stages of his career, Shakespeare is said to have been working with a writing partner, English dramatist John Fletcher. The two of them co-wrote ‘The Two Noble Kinsmen’ in 1613 and prior to this had also joined forces to write a history play, ‘Henry VIl’l which is also known as ‘All is True’.

Cardenio

The argument of dating the play to 1613 is supported by the fact that the records of the treasurer of the King’s chamber to King James state that two payments were made to Shakespeare’s drama company King's Men in 1613 for plays called "Cardenna" and "Cardenno" These two records are presumed to refer to the same play (Cardenio) as rules for spelling were not standardised in Shakespeare's time. Therefore, these records are taken as evidence that Cardenio was written around 1613.

The titular character of this play is also a recurring figure in one of the most influential works of Spanish literature Miguel de Cervante’s Don Quote. Written and published in 1605, the first English translation of this Spanish classic came around 1612. Therefore, it is fairly safe for us to assume that Shakespeare and Fletcher would have taken inspiration from this translated version of the novel.

Never published

For some reason, John Heminge and Henry Contell did not include Cardenio in the First Folio (1623), which was the first significant compilation of the English playwright’s works. As a result, the play was never published or made available to the general public.

Lost and forgotten

Many scholars and researchers have come up with theories to justify why this play was not included in the First Folio and how or why it got lost.

One of the possible answers for excluding it can be that it was written in collaboration, but the folio does include co-authored plays such as Henry VIII and Two Gentlemen of Verona, so this cannot be the reason.

Another suggestion is that they did not include it as they did not have a written copy - because the manuscript was destroyed in the fire that burnt down Shakespeare's Globe Theatre on June 29, 1613. Or perhaps the play, fresh from its early performance at the King's court in 1613, was new enough that no copy had been made of text and that the only text of the manuscript was in the Globe when it burnt to the ground. Although it is hard to specify how Cardenio's original text was lost, it is certainly fascinating to know how through the years numerous playwrights, actors, and directors have tried to reconstruct and recover this play.

In 2009, British academic Bernard Richards reconstructed Cardenio on stage. More recently in 2011, English director Gregory Doran crafted his own version of the play for production at the Royal Shakespeare Company's Swan Theatre.

Musing about Cardenio in an interview with the Wall Street Journal in 2009, Canadian novelist Stephen Marche said "This work would have been a direct link between the founder of the modern novel and the greatest playwright of all time, a connection between the Spanish and British literary traditions at their sources, and a meeting of the grandest expressions of competing colonial powers..."

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