My Science School

Intensity of the harmful radiations coming out of TV screen is strong near it and gradually falls In simple terms, the eye consists of a cornea (in the front), eye lens (in the middle) and retina (at the back). The space between the cornea and the eye lens is filled with an aqueous humour and that between the lens and retina is filled with a vitreous humour. Ciliary muscles hold the eye lens in its place and also change the shape (curvature) of the lens (to adjust the focus on objects) along with the help of the fluids.

 If one sits too close to the television or cinema screen, the eye Lens has to do more frequent focusing for viewing. Light rays from a near portion of the picture diverge and so the lens is curved more to focus on them. Simultaneously, the lens has to collect the light (coming more parallel) from more distant parts of the picture. This causes strain on the eye, and if practiced for long, can permanently damage the eye.

In addition, for optimum resolution of the picture and to reduce the level of radiation from the TV screen, we are advised to sit at a distance while watching the programmers.

In fact, the limit of resolution of the human eye is 1 mm at a distance of about 3 m. If one watches a TV sitting close to it one can see the picture elements (grains) which make up the picture. To see a clear sharp picture without eye strain, one must sit at an optimum distance so that the individual grains merge to form a complete picture.

 In a typical case, the main field of vision of the eye is defined by the vertical and horizontal viewing of 30-40 degrees; beyond which the vision is poor. Therefore, for comfortable viewing, a viewing angle of 10-15 degrees at the eye is optimum.

The width-to-weight ratio of the TV screen is kept as 4:3 because of the binocular vision due to the pair of eyes in the horizontal plane and the range of movement of both the eyeballs being less restricted in the horizontal plane as compared to that in the vertical plane. Hence, the best viewing distance for watching TV is 4-8 times the height of the screen (for a visual angle of about 10 degrees). For 51-cm TV, the minimum viewing distance should be 2.5 m. this minimum distance reduces eye fatigue by avoiding rapid movement of the eyeballs.

Also the light that falls on the eyeball comes directly out of the TV screen. Hence the with the distance from the screen.

So, to reduce exposure to these radiations, it is better to sit a bit far away. (In a theatre, the light falling on the eye is actually those reflected by the wall/screen and so the harmful effects are less.)

To reduce the strain on the eye, there must be some light in the hall. And this should be placed preferably above or on the sides of the TV to avoid any glare from the screen. 

The cordless phone is an FM transmitter/receiver. The frequency range lies between 26.6 and 49.8 MHz A cordless phone essentially converts the audio signals from the telephone line into the FM waves and it is detected by the mobile handset, and vice versa. For security reasons the range is limited to about 100 metres and their power is about 500 milliwatts. Each cordless phone is assigned a particular channel (or frequency range) to avoid interference with nearby instruments. 

Cordless phone is based on wireless transmission and frequency modulation. The main components of a cordless phone are the base unit and the portable unit. While the base unit is kept at a fixed point, connected to power supply and the working telephone line, the portable unit can be carried to a certain distance, depending on the frequency range limitation. Normally in India, the permissible distance is about 100 metres.

 The base unit and the portable unit essentially consist of radio wave transmission and reception devices which enable a two way wireless communication between these units.

The radio waves are broadcast in the air through the antenna fitted to the units. Just like the signals emanating from the telephone are converted to radio frequency in the transmission side, the reverse happens in the receiver side, (i.e.) the radio frequency signals are converted into original signals, bell or speech.

 Since the handset does not have and connecting cord or wire, the name cordless phone.

            

    In normal telephone exchange systems, a pair of wires extends each telephone instrument to the telephone exchange.

Normally, copper conductors are used to give loop to indicate the exchange that the telephone hand set had been lifted for making a call or for receiving a call. In advanced countries, Optical Fibre is also used or for extending the loop.

When you make a call to your friend who is connected to another exchange, the digits are sent to the exchange to which you are connected, in the form of pulses (break and make of loop) or frequencies.

The originating exchange analyses these digits and establishes a path to the terminating exchange where your friend is connected. Over this path, signals (some of the digits dialed by you and other technical information) are sent in the form of bits or frequencies. 

The terminating exchange analyses and marks your friend's line and if it is free, a ring is sent to him and ring back tone is sent to you. When the call is answered, metering takes place.

In the cell phone system, there is no permanent wire connection between the instrument and the mobile telephone exchange. The connection between the instrument and mobile exchange is established via an intermediate station called Base Station (BS) where a transmitting tower is erected. The connectivity between the mobile exchange and the BS may be wire and between BS and Cell Phone is a Radio Channel.

The connection between a mobile exchange and another mobile exchange or public telephone exchange is by wire.

 Cell phones are technically called Mobile Station (MS) and its telephone exchange is called Mobile Switching Centre (MSC). The radio channel for both-way voice and control channel for controlling are established between BS and MS whenever required only.                                

A town or an area is divided into smaller areas called Cells. At the centre of the cell, there exists the Base Station (BS). When the MS moves around inside the cell, the signals including voice will be strong. When you use a cell phone to talk to your friend with conventional phone, you will   be connected to the BS over a booth-way Radio channel. From BS to MSC over a copper cable or Optic Fibre cable, from MSC to another Exchange and further to your friend over a copper cable

            As you are moving and when you enter into another cell, old BS reports to MSC that you have left the cell and your signals are weak. Immediately, the MSC orders all other Base stations to search for a new comer (as far as other cells are concerned, you are a new comer).

 The BS which is very near to you reports to the MSC that it has found a new corner with strong signals. The MSC orders the old BS to hand off (you) to new BS. Handing off is done in less than 400 milliseconds. But you do not feel any disturbance in your conversation. You may cross many cells during your long conversation without knowing that so many hands off have taken place. Each cell phone is associated with a unique identity stored in Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). This identity is sent to MSC through Base Station when ‘Send’ button is pressed.

The MSC analyses this and validates as to whether cell phone is authorized to make a call. If yes, the call will be put through. When there is an incoming call to the MS, first it is received by the MSC. MSC analyses the received information that contains the MS number also. This number is paged in all cells. If the MS is kept powered on, a page response is received on the control channel from the MS. A voice channel is allotted by MSC. BS and MS are ordered to tune to that channel. Once tuned through connection information is returned to the caller who gets ring-back tone. Ringing is initiated in the MS. When the MS answers, conversation can start and metering starts in MSC.

         Earth rotates from west to east causing the Sun, the Moon, stars and other planets rise from east and set in the west. On the surface of the earth each point is moving eastward with respect to an astronaut in space.

            Thus if a rocket is launched at a small angle eastward vertically the speed of earth gets added to the rocket’s speed. This reduces the amount of fuel required. If the rocket is inclined along any other direction, the speed of the earth gets subtracted from the speed of rocket and will necessitate burning of more fuel.

            In addition, in case of any failure during launch the rocket will fall back to the earth. Hence if it is launched from the east coast, the rocket will fall into the sea only. If it is launched from the west coast, in case of failure, the rocket will fall on the land endangering human habitats. Thus choosing eastward inclination is scientific but choice of eastern coast concerns safety.

            A small amount of air is trapped and pressurized when the fixed end of the thumb and the free end of the middle finger are brought together. When this pressurized air is released suddenly during the clicking it produces a sound as in the case of a balloon burst.

Sound is caused by the cracking of knuckles when a bubble which has formed in the lubricating fluid (the synovial fluid) which surrounds the two bones of the knuckles bursts.

Normally there is a lubricating fluid which prevents the two bones which forms the knuckles from grating against each other. This fluid contains tiny bubbles which cannot be seen by the naked eye.

So when the knuckle bones remain close together the fluid is under pressure and the bubbles remain tiny.

But when one clenches his fist, the bones are pulled apart which causes the bubbles to join together to form one large bubble. Then when one works the fist, the pressure changes and makes the bubble to burst which then produces a loud cracking, noise. Doctors are not sure whether cracking them is harmful or not, though there is a belief that cracking ones knuckles could make them large and unsightly.

TFM is the abbreviated form of ‘Total Fat Matter’ in soap. According to the provisions of the Drugs and Cosmetic Rules, in all toilet soaps, the TFM content has to be mentioned in terms of percentage on the wrapper of the product apart from the other details required under the rules.

The standard fixed by the Bureau of Indian Standard (formerly I.S.I.), the ideal and safe percentage of TFM in any toiletry preparation should be between 60 and 80 per cent.

However, having been unsure of the standard, even many of the reputed soap manufacturers have omitted ‘toilet soap’ from their name and simply state ‘bathing bar’. Similarly shaving soaps are marketed as showing creams without mention of TFM content.  

Water boils at 100°C at sea level. The atmospheric pressure which acts on water is 14.7 psia (pounds per square inch –absolute).  This atmospheric pressure varies with the altitude. So the boiling point of water is influenced with respect to the atmospheric pressure. Perfect vacuum is ‘O’ psia.

Any pressure between 14.7 psia and o-psia is ‘negative pressure’ that is, partial vacuum.

Vacuum drying takes advantage of the decrease in the boiling point of water that occurs as the pressure is lowered. This type of drying keeps the products with very low moisture content. If salt water is subjected to this negative pressure, the water will boil by taking the heat from the ambient. In case of reducing atmospheric pressure, i.e. 14.7 psia to 0.15 psia, water will start boiling at  C itself.

Freeze drying, convection drying, microwave drying, dielectric drying, conduction drying, U-V radiation drying, etc, are some other drying methods applied in various industries such as textile, plywood manufacturing, paper products, production of dried milk, soaps, detergents, pharmaceuticals, serums, bacterial and viral cultures, vaccines, fruit juices, vegetables, coffee and tea extracts, sea foods, meats, cereals etc. 

Trains are generally equipped with vacuum brakes. In steam locomotives, ejectors help create the vacuum and in diesel and electric locomotives, air-compressors and vacuum exhausters are used.

Pipes passing through the underside of coaches are connected to vacuum cylinders (provided in the coach) which help maintain a vacuum throughout the length of the pipe. The pipes (of each coach) are then linked.

When the train is on the run, a vacuum of about 20-22 inches per square inch is maintained throughout the system (atmospheric pressure is 30 pounds per square inch).

 When the driver wants to stop the train, he gradually allows air to enter the vacuum pipe and activates the pistons of the vacuum cylinders which help to apply the brake.

For emergency application of brakes by passengers, coaches are provided with alarm chains connected to the vacuum system. When the chain is pulled, a small valve open up and allows air to enter the system slowly, gradual application of the brakes.

Direct admission valves are provided in each coach near the vacuum cylinder and they help in the uniform application of the brake throughout the train.

Anything that is formed without the act of fertilization is biologically called “vegetative”. The term “vegetative” is more appropriate to the plants but not for animals. But it has become customary to term the unfertilized eggs of hens as vegetarian eggs since they are formed without the fusion of sperm.

Country breed birds lay fertilized eggs. Such eggs are laid a week or more after the cock has mated the hens, but white leghorns which are suitable for egg production lay only unfertilized eggs as they are not allowed to mate with cocks. The leghorns are genetically improved birds which produce through successive generations under improved breeding methods.

Nutritionally there is no difference between a vegetarian egg and an ordinary egg, but in certain physiological characteristics they differ. Leghorn eggs cannot be incubated, but eggs of country breed can be incubated. Such hatching eggs deteriorate with storage and therefore should not be stored beyond seven days, while leghorn eggs can be stored for several days.

The eggs of poultry bred leghorn birds are larger in size, with more amount of albumin and always white in colour. The eggs of country bred birds are smaller in size and have less amount of albumin and the shell colour may vary from white to pale straw yellow colour. The natural feeding habit of these birds is the only reason for these characteristics.

Eggs are egg-shaped for several reasons. First, it enables them to fit more snugly together in the nest, with smaller air spaces between them. This reduces heat loss and allows best use of the nest space.

 Second, if the eggs roll, it will roll in a circular path around the pointed end. This will reduce the danger of the egg rolling out of the nest. Moreover le strongest shape would be a sphere, but spherical eggs will roll away, and this will be unfortunate, for birds that nest on cliffs.

Most eggs will roll in a curved path, coming to rest with the sharper end pointing uphill.

There is in fact a noticeable tendency for the eggs of cliff-nesting birds to deviate more from the spherical, and thus roll in a tighter arc.

Third, an egg shape is more comfortable for the bird while it is lying, rather than a sphere or a cylinder. Other shapes have structurally weak points and edges. Finally, another important reason is that hen’s eggs are the ideal shape for fitting into egg cups and egg holders on the fridge door. No other shape would do.

Food poisoning is caused either by ingestion of food contaminated with chemical or metallic poisons, bacteria or bacterial toxins or by eating poisonous foods such as certain species of mushrooms.

Molds and bacteria are responsible for microbial food poisoning. Molds grow on food (especially if they are moist). During their growing period they produce toxic substances called mycotoxins whose effect on man and animals cause mycotoxicosis. Mycotoxins remain the food long after the mold producing them has died and can therefore be present in foods that are not visibly moldy. Some mycotoxins are stable and survive the usual conditions of cooking and processing.

Food grains, especially bajra, rye and jowar get infected with a parasitic ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea. Ergotism, a toxicosis results from eating grains contaminated with this fungus. Alimentary toxic aleukia (ATA) is another mycotoxicosis caused due to eating moldy grains.

 Asperigillus flavis and A. parasiticus growth in food results in the production of aflatoxins. This mycotoxin has been much studied. There are 14 chemically related toxins and one of them aflatoxin-B is most frequently found in food and is the most potent carcinogen known. Liver cancer due to aflatoxin ranks high in India.

Over 50 genera of bacteria have been associated with food poisoning. Bacteria cause food poisoning in two ways; due to food infection or intoxication. The former is on account of the organism present in the food during consumption. Salmonella species, vibro, parahaemolyticus, Escherichia coli, yersinia enterocolitiea, clostridium perfringens and Campylobacter jejuni, belong to this category. The bacteria then grow in the host and cause a disease. For example, Salmonella in food causes an illness called Salmonellosis. Diarrohea, abdominal pain, vomiting and fever are caused by this type of poisoning.

The second type of poisoning is due to the toxins produced by bacteria in the food prior to consumption. Examples of this type are Clostridium botulinum, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus. These produce toxins in the food which cause illness in susceptible hosts. For example the disease caused by the toxins of Clostridium botulinum is known as botulism. The toxicity will last for 6-8 months and disturb vision, speech and swallowing. Progressive weakness and respiratory failure set in.

              Poisoning of food due to contaminants arising from food processing is also common. For example when fumigant like ethylene oxide is used to sterilize food under conditions in which steam heat is impartial, it reacts with inorganic chlorides in food to form toxic compounds.

Food poisoning or intoxication usually refers to gastrointestinal diseases caused by the ingestion of food contaminated by pathogens and their toxins. The toxins are called enterotoxins because they disrupt the functioning of the internal mucosa, causing symptoms such as nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea. Mostly food poisoning is caused by bacteria and viruses.

            Cholera, an epidemic in various parts of the world is caused by Vibrio Cholerae, mainly through water and food contaminated by fecal material. Botulism is a form poisoning caused by Clostridium botulism. This common source of infection is canned food that has not been heated sufficiently to kill the contaminating C. botulinum spores.

Staphylococcal food poisoning is a major type of food intoxication caused by ingestion of improperly stored or cooked food (particularly processed meat, chicken salad, pastries, ice cream) in which Staphylococcus aureus grow.

Salmonellosis or salmonella food poisoning is caused by over 2,000 Salmonella serovars. The most frequent one in humans is S. Serovar typphimurium. Human acquire the bacteria from contaminated foods such as bee products, poultry, eggs and egg products.

Shigellosis or bacterial dysentery is caused by several species of Shigella. Normally it is transmitted by direct fecal-oral route although water and food are involved in some of bacterial dysentery. 

Paper is made of cellulose obtained from pulp of cotton lint, wood, straw and rag. Blotting paper is an unsized paper, since sizing agents are not employed in the manufacture of this paper. This is in order to retain the absorbent property, which is more in blotting paper. This absorbent property is due to the presence of more microscopic capillaries, which exhibit more capillary action resulting in the easy entry and spreading of any liquid, which come in to contact. Another property of blotting paper is that it is not hard, since it is manufactured without loading.

 The ordinary writing paper is a sized paper. So it is impregnated with sizing and coating materials. This prevents the incorporation of microscopic capillaries. These papers are permanence, resistant to ink penetration and better finish. Polyvinyl alcohol, carboxyl methyl cellulose, alginates and certain wax emulsions in combination with starch are also used as loading agents for the manufacture of these papers. Tissue papers are entirely different from ordinary writing papers and blotting papers.

Unlike these two papers they are very thin, glazed and sometimes slightly waxed. Even though tissue papers are thin, they are very strong. Since they are highly glazed they are transparent. These papers are specially made for the purpose of taking carbon copies and packing cakes and butter.

 

A blotting paper absorbs ink by capillary action which is a natural phenomenon exhibited by liquids in the attempts to reduce surface tension.

Any thin tube having a very fine ne bore (say, less than one mm) is called a capillary tube. When such a tube is immersed n a liquid rises inside the tube to a level higher than that outside it. (Only liquids which have an angle of contact less than 90 degrees will show a rise. Other liquids like mercury will show a dip.)

Blotting paper is made of cellulose obtained from the pulp of cotton linter, wood or straw. A purified pulp paste is directly pressed to form blotting paper sheets without any treatment. So as to incorporate microscopic capillaries. When such a paper is placed in ink, water or any aqueous solution, the solution immediately enter in to these capillaries and spreads all over the sheet.

Capillary action is also responsible for many common phenomenon seen in our everyday life. It helps plants in raising the sap from the roots to the top through the stem. It also makes kerosene or oil in wick tip where it is burnt. 

The problem lies in power to weight ratio of the bike. Bikes that use diesel as fuel are heavy in size. The power output from the diesel engine is high and more over noise and vibrations are at a high level, prohibiting them in common use.

Diesel cannot be used with 50, 100 and 150 cc engines, because of high power output. Diesel engine is a compression ignition engine where diesel injected into a cylinder of high pressure and temperature compressed air, under a very high pressure.

            Atomized diesel particles come through a tiny hole of fuel injection nozzle burn and release mechanical power output. Design and manufacturing of such minute mechanical parts, withstanding high temperature and pressure is not cost effective.

And usage of diesel demands heavier   construction   of all   structural parts to endure high   vibrations. The cost   is   also high.   If the engine   is   not   serviced properly and periodically the pollutants level emitted will be very high when compared to petrol engines. At present only Enfield India Manufactures motorbikes which use diesel as fuel.