My Science School

 

 

What led to war in North America between England and France?

                      French explorers had travelled widely in North America long before the English colonists arrived. The French became well established in the northern regions of modern Canada. Their first settlement was established in 1608, and its capital became Quebec. Later, French explorers ventured further south and claimed the Mississippi valley for France.

                          There were relatively few French colonists in North America compared to the number of English colonists. By 1700 there were only 20,000 French settlers, while 250,000 English had settled in the east. Between 1689 and 1748 there were many skirmishes between the French and English. In 1754 serious fighting broke out down the east coast.  The French conceded defeat in 1763 and Canada was split into French-and English-speaking regions.

 

 

What first led to a revolt against British rule?

                      After defeating the French in North America, the British needed to occupy their newly acquired lands and garrison them with soldiers. They needed to raise money to pay for this, and chose to tax sugar exports. These increased taxes were bitterly resented by the Americans, who had no say in the governing of their country. They retaliated by banning British imports and then, in 1776, by signing the Declaration of Independence triggering war with Britain.

                    At first the British were successful, but gradually the difficulty of supplying their troops over long distances wore them down. In 1783, Britain recognized the independence of her former colony. The fighting continued until 1815 when the position of the Canadian border was settled.

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Where were the first colonies in North America?

                      Following the arrival of Columbus in the New World, explorers viewed America as an obstruction in their voyages to trade in the Far East. It was not until 100 years after Columbus that people realized it might be worth settling in North America.

                     The original English colony, in Virginia, was settled in 1607. The colony just managed to survive in the face of disease, starvation and attacks by Native Americans. By 1612 tobacco was being cultivated and was successfully exported to Europe.

 

 

 

Why was the slave trade established?

                   There was huge demand for sugar in Europe when tea and coffee became fashionable drinks. Sugar cane grew well in the West Indies, where huge plantations were established. To provide workers for these plantations and for tobacco plantations on the American mainland, huge numbers of slaves were imported from West Africa. They were bought from Arab slave traders or local chieftains and shipped in conditions of terrible suffering.

                      The traders paid for their slaves with goods from England, which in turn were paid for by sugar from the West Indies. In this way a triangular trading route was established, taking goods from England to Africa, slaves from Africa to the West Indies and sugar from the West Indies to England.

 

Who were the Tudors?

                     Henry VII was the first of a powerful line of Tudor monarchs who greatly strengthened England’s power in Europe and the rest of the world, Henry governed carefully, demanding high levels of taxes but at the same time spending widely. He abolished the private armies that had caused so many rebellions in the past,  and he ordered the nobles who opposed him to be executed and confiscated their lands.

                   Henry was a clever diplomat, who persuaded the French to pay him not to fight them. When Henry VIII came to the throne, England was wealthy and powerful.

 

 

 

How did the Great Fire of London improve the city?

                        The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666, destroying more than 13,000 homes. At the time, most of the houses in London were built from timber. They were very close together and often leaned out across the streets to gain more space. The congested conditions were one reason  for the rapid spread of the Black Death earlier, and for later outbreaks of plague and other diseases.

                      The Great Fire destroyed a huge area in what is now the City of London, the capital’s commercial heart. This cleared the way for planned reconstruction with stone and brick buildings, many of which survive today. Sir Christopher Wren built St Paul’s Cathedral and other surviving churches to replace those lost in the fire.

 

 

Why did England and Spain go to war?

                       The English were envious of Spain’s rich colonies in South and Central America. During the reign of Elizabeth I, the English raided Spanish ships carrying gold and silver to Spain. The angry Spanish rightly suspected that the English Crown supported these semi-official privateers.

                          The situation was made worse when an English army helped the Dutch, who were fighting against Spanish rule. In 1588 Philip of Spain sent the Spanish Armada to invade England. The Armada failed, but the war continued until 1604. Meanwhile, Spain’s power had declined because of the expense of war and the shortage of gold and silver from the colonies. Spain was also weakened by the expulsion of Moorish descendants who played a key role in Spain’s prosperity.

Pictures Credit: Google

 

Who were the Tudors?

                     Henry VII was the first of a powerful line of Tudor monarchs who greatly strengthened England’s power in Europe and the rest of the world, Henry governed carefully, demanding high levels of taxes but at the same time spending widely. He abolished the private armies that had caused so many rebellions in the past,  and he ordered the nobles who opposed him to be executed and confiscated their lands.

                   Henry was a clever diplomat, who persuaded the French to pay him not to fight them. When Henry VIII came to the throne, England was wealthy and powerful.

 

 

 

How did the Great Fire of London improve the city?

                        The Great Fire of London broke out in 1666, destroying more than 13,000 homes. At the time, most of the houses in London were built from timber. They were very close together and often leaned out across the streets to gain more space. The congested conditions were one reason  for the rapid spread of the Black Death earlier, and for later outbreaks of plague and other diseases.

                      The Great Fire destroyed a huge area in what is now the City of London, the capital’s commercial heart. This cleared the way for planned reconstruction with stone and brick buildings, many of which survive today. Sir Christopher Wren built St Paul’s Cathedral and other surviving churches to replace those lost in the fire.

 

 

Why did England and Spain go to war?

                       The English were envious of Spain’s rich colonies in South and Central America. During the reign of Elizabeth I, the English raided Spanish ships carrying gold and silver to Spain. The angry Spanish rightly suspected that the English Crown supported these semi-official privateers.

                          The situation was made worse when an English army helped the Dutch, who were fighting against Spanish rule. In 1588 Philip of Spain sent the Spanish Armada to invade England. The Armada failed, but the war continued until 1604. Meanwhile, Spain’s power had declined because of the expense of war and the shortage of gold and silver from the colonies. Spain was also weakened by the expulsion of Moorish descendants who played a key role in Spain’s prosperity.

Pictures Credit: Google

 

How did the Spanish build an empire?

                    After the discovery of the Americas, Spanish adventurers set out to seek their fortunes. They sent expeditions to South and Central America and to Mexico in search of gold and treasure. In Mexico, a group of Spanish soldiers attacked the capital of the Aztec Empire. The Aztecs had been expecting the god Quetzalcoatl to return to the Earth, and believed that the leader of the raiders, Cortes, was this god. The Aztecs offered little resistance, so Cortes captured Montezuma, the Aztec emperor, and ruled in his place.

                   In Peru, the adventurer Pizarro took advantage of a civil war to conquer the Incas, murdering their rulers. The Incas’ primitive weapons were no match for the Spanish guns. Pizarro’s men were able to loot gold and other treasures from both these rich regions with little resistance.

 

 

How did the Spanish defeat the Incas and the Aztecs?

                       Several factors made it easy for a small group of Spaniards to conquer these great civilizations. Though vastly outnumbered the Spanish had horses, armour and guns which gave them a huge advantage over the native warriors. The Incas and the Aztecs had never seen anyone in armour, and thought that the Spaniards were supernatural beings. They did not use steel and had no defence against Spanish swords and crossbows. Horses were unknown in Central and South America, and at first the Native Indians thought that man and horse were one monstrous creature.

                    The Spaniards brought with them devastating diseases such as smallpox, which ravaged these peoples. They had no resistance to the smallpox virus, and millions of them died. The Native Indians often offered no resistance to the Spanish advance, becoming totally demoralized at the collapse of their ordered society.

Pictures Credit: Google

 

 

What was the Renaissance?

The 1500s was a period when Europe changed rapidly, marking the start of modern history. Before this period most learning was controlled by the Church, and people were not permitted to question established Church teaching. Art was usually based on religious subjects, and most scholars trained to become either priests or monks.

During the Renaissance, many highly educated people escaped to Europe from the collapsing Byzantine Empire. They brought with them knowledge and documents that aroused great interest in the ancient Greeks and Romans, whose contributions to civilization had been largely forgotten. Lost arts such as casting statues in bronze were revived. This whole flowering of knowledge and art is now known as the Renaissance.

 

 

 

Why did explorers travel to the East Indies?

The Portuguese were the first European navigators to explore the East. They explored the African coast and then eventually reached India, bringing back cargoes of pepper and other spices. There was a race to find new sources of spices —these sources were then kept secret because of the enormous prices the new spices would fetch in Europe.

Pictures Credit: Google

 

 

What was the Magna Carta?

                        The Magna Carta was a document signed by King John in 1215, guaranteeing feudal rights to the barons. This was the first time that the monarch’s authority had been successfully challenged and John soon tried to go back on his word. However, after his death the barons renegotiated the charter with his son and it became part of English law. The Magna Carta stated that the king and the barons must comply with the laws of the land.

 

 

 

 

 

 

How did printing change Europe?

                      In the 1400s a new system of printing was invented. The newly printed books were cheap and, although first published in Latin, they were soon produced in the languages spoken by ordinary people. By 1500 there were 1,700 printing presses in Europe, producing thousands of different books. As a result education became accessible to more people, helping to break down the old social structures of Europe.

What was the Black Death?

                    The Black Death was an epidemic that permanently changed the face of medieval Europe. It killed more than one-quarter of the population, causing thousands of villages to be abandoned and subsequently to disappear.

                    The Black Death probably arrived in Europe from Central Asia by way of Mongol raiders. It first caused epidemics in Italy in 1347, spreading rapidly through the rest of Europe. The disease was spread by the bite of fleas from infected rats, but because its cause was not understood the infection raged unchecked. The resulting fear led to a great wave of religious hysteria. A shortage of manual workers led to the collapse of the long-established feudal system.

 

 

What was the Poll Tax?

                    The Poll Tax was one of the factors that led to a peasant revolt In England. At the same time similar revolts took place in other parts of Europe. The Poll Tax was introduced in England in 1381, and amounted to one whole week’s wages for a peasant. The revolt against this tax began in southeast England, and the peasants led by Wat Tyler marched on London to protest.

                   Although the young king Richard II eventually agreed to the peasants’ demands, Tyler was murdered and the revolt eventually collapsed. Similar revolts took place in France and in Flanders, but these were brutally crushed by the French army with a huge loss of life.

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What was the Hundred Years’ War?

                      The Hundred Years’ War began in 1337 and continued for more than a century. It was not a single war, but rather a series of skirmishes between France and England. It began when the English tried to dominate France, and the French in turn tried to confiscate lands occupied by the English.

                      The English invaded France and won a great battle at Crecy. The British archers with their longbows defeated a much larger army of knights, marking the beginning of the end for mounted knights. Further battles followed, but in 1396 Richard II of England married the daughter of Charles VI of France, establishing a 20-year truce that finally ended the fighting.

 

 

 

Who was the Black Prince?

                      The Black Prince was Edward, the son of Edward III, whose quarrel with the French started the Hundred Years War. His name came from the black armour he wore in battle. The Black Prince won a major battle at Poitiers, in 1356, capturing the French king, John II. As a result of this, the English were able to negotiate their possession of large territories in France. They soon lost these again in further fighting and by the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453; they had lost all French territory except Calais.

 

 

Did the Mongols occupy parts of Europe?

                      After the death of their leader, Genghis Khan, the Mongol armies continued their advance westwards under his son, Ogotai. In 1241 150,000 Mongol horsemen destroyed much of Poland and Hungary, causing widespread panic throughout Europe. However, Ogotai died in the middle of the campaign, and the Mongols returned to Mongolia to elect a new leader. Fortunately for the rest of Europe, they did not return to wreak havoc.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

What was the Golden Horde?

                       The Golden Horde was the name given to the eastern part of the Mongol Empire, which included most of Russia from the 13th to the 14th centuries. The Horde governed most of European Russia, Siberia and the lands down to the borders of Iran. The Horde included both Mongols and Turks, and adopted Islam as their religion. They carried on with their traditional lifestyle while collecting tribute from the original occupiers of the lands they conquered. They were weakened by the Black Death in 1346 and 1347. They continued to decline in power until they were broken by counterattacks by the Russians and eventually by the Mongol ruler Tamurlane. Their last foothold in the Crimea was destroyed in 1502.

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Who was Kublai Khan?

                     Kublai Khan was the grandson of Genghis Khan, who completed the conquest of China. His rule was less severe than that of other Mongol rulers, and he permitted the established religions to continue. Under Kublai Khan, many Mongols in the Middle East adopted the Muslim faith. After his death the enormous Mongol Empire proved too big to govern and it began to break up into smaller empires.

 

 

 

Who was Marco Polo?

                        Marco Polo was one of the first Europeans to travel through the Mongol territories. He travelled overland from Italy to China, where he was welcomed by Kublai Khan. He asked Marco Polo to arrange to have Christian missionaries sent to China. On his return to Europe, Polo’s reports raised enormous interest in China and led to many new sea voyages in attempts to establish trade routes there.

 

 

Who was Genghis khan?

                Genghis Khan was a Mongol warrior whose conquests built the greatest land empire in history. His empire was huge, stretching across central Asia from the Sea of Japan to the Caspian Sea, and occupying most of modern Russia. At various times this empire included China, Korea, Turkestan, Armenia and Mongolia, as well as parts of Thailand, Vietnam and Burma.

            Genghis Khan began life in the plains of Mongolia. He gradually began to build up groups of formerly isolated Mongol tribes until he became the sole ruler of Mongolia. The Mongols attacked China under the leadership of Genghis Khan, and by 1215 they had taken control of the capital, Beijing. Then Genghis Khan and his Mongol forces swept their way westwards through Asia, until they reached the Caspian Sea.

 

 

 

 

 

 Why were the Mongols so successful?

                             The Mongols were able to succeed against established armies because they were unpredictable. Armies drew up in battle order and fought in daylight, according to the rules of war. The Mongols, however, were very different. They charged into battle on horseback, relying entirely on speed and surprise and taking no prisoners. Their skill as mounted archers made it difficult for foot soldiers to defend themselves.

                            Most cities surrendered immediately, rather than risk being massacred.

 

 

 

 

 

What were the Mongols’ homes like?

                      The Mongols lived in large circular tents called yurts. These yurts are still used today. They are made of felt, which is fastened over a light wooden frame. The whole structure can be quickly dismantled and carried by horses as the Mongol tribes migrate across the steppes, or grassy plains, following their grazing flocks.

 

How did Christianity influence life in the Middle Ages?

                          The Church controlled almost all aspects of life. Kings usually took their instructions from bishops, under the threat of excommunication if they disobeyed. Bishops were immensely powerful people, controlling monasteries, churches and huge areas of land. Because poverty and humility were to be admired, the Church was able to extract heavy taxes from the peasantry. At the same time, richer nobles gave money to the Church, believing this would ensure better treatment in the afterlife.

            The Church was the only source of learning. Monasteries produced many books by hand copying before the development of modern printing. The language of learning and of religion was Latin, which made education inaccessible to ordinary people.

 

 

What was the Holy Inquisition?

            The Inquisition was an organisation set up by the Church to prevent any opposition to its teaching. The Church feared the influence of heretics – people who placed a different interpretation on the Bible and its teachings. These people often caused trouble and unrest in the population. Heresy was declared an offence in AD392.

            In the 12th and 13th centuries, several new heresies appeared that threatened the existence of the established Church. In 1231, Pope Gregory created the Inquisition to find and punish those who believed in these heresies. It worked mostly in France, Spain and Germany, destroying several popular religious movements. Heretics who refused to change their religious beliefs were usually burned alive. After stamping out all resistance, the Inquisition turned its attention to Protestants who had also begun to challenge the traditional teachings of the Church.

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What were the Crusades?

            Christians throughout Europe were shocked when the Arabs captured Jerusalem during the Middle Ages. In 1095, the pope of the Roman Catholic Church called for a series of crusades to recapture the Holy Land, believing that they would unite Europe’s warring kings and knights. The first was the Peasants’ Crusade, whose members were untrained and poorly armed. The crusaders did not reach beyond Turkey, where they were all killed.

            Later crusades were better organized, but many crusaders were more interested in power and riches for themselves than in any religious purpose. By 1099 the conquering crusaders reached Jerusalem. The need for travel to the Holy Land led to improve ships, the development of maps and compasses, and international trade throughout the Mediterranean.

 

Have there ever been two popes?

            The power of the popes rivaled that of kings in Western Europe. Kings became involved in religious affairs, and popes played a part in politics. Some popes gave way entirely to kings and surrendered their authority completely.

            In 1309, a French pope decided to base the Church in Avignon, in France, where it remained until 1377. Meanwhile, French kings had managed to persuade the Church to support them. However, in 1378 the cardinals were unable to agree about the election of a new pope. Two rival popes declared themselves as official heads of the Church, and for a while there was also a third pope. This odd situation continued until 1417, when a single pope was elected and based in Rome once again.

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What happened to the Western Roman Empire?

            Following the division of the Roman Empire into two parts, the Byzantine, or Eastern, Empire flourished for centuries. The Western Empire was raided repeatedly by invading barbarians and finally collapsed in AD76. One group of invaders, the Franks, settled in what is now central France. The Frankish king Charlemagne conquered France and extended his rule into Italy, Germany and the Netherlands. He forced his subjects to accept Christianity. In AD800 the pope rewarded him by appointing him Holy Roman Emperor.

            Charlemagne’s capital in Aix la Chapelle (modern Aachen, in Germany) was an important centre of learning. After his death, the empire was again torn by war. The Holy Roman Empire, based in Germany, survived from AD962 to 1806.

 

Who was the real ruler?

            By the 10th century AD, the power of the pope throughout Europe was absolute. The Holy Roman Emperor supposedly controlled all of Western Europe. However, when it came to disagreement, the pope had the final say because he could excommunicate the emperor or any king who opposed his wishes. Excommunication was punished of the highest degree.

            The Church controlled huge areas of land and became very rich, which antagonized many rulers. The nobles who had control over local areas were often divided in their king or the emperor, and on other occasions siding with the pope if it suited them. The common people were rarely involved or even aware of these disputes, because their immediate problems were how to feed themselves and survive.