My Science School

          Do you know that all forms of Indian classical dance are based on a book called the Natyashastra? It was written by a great sage called Bharatha around the fourth century BC. It is the source of not only all forms of Indian classical dance, but also music and drama. In fact, it is regarded as the fifth Veda.

          According to the Natyashastra, all dance forms revolve around the nine rasas or emotions. They are happiness, sorrow, anger, compassion, disgust, wonder, fear, courage and serenity. Hand movements or mudras, are used to express the emotions clearly to the audience. The Natyashastra is the world’s first book on stagecraft. Bharata’s ideas are the key to an understanding of Indian arts, music and sculpture.

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          Sushruta, who lived in the 6th century BC in ancient India, was the first surgeon in the world. He lived on the banks of the Ganga in what is Varanasi today. Sushruta is the author of the book Sushruta Samhita, in which he describes over 120 surgical instruments, 300 surgical procedures and 8 types of surgeries.

          He was the pioneer in plastic surgery and cosmetic surgery, and the technique that he perfected for repairing the nose, is practiced almost unchanged to this day. His book contains the first known description of several operations. Sushruta was also the first surgeon to advocate the practice of operations on inanimate objects such as watermelons and reeds, thus laying the foundation for the modern practice of surgical workshops. He suggested that patients should be kept under sedation with wine, so that they are relaxed during an operation.

          His emphasis on personal cleanliness and sterilization of instruments are followed by surgeons till today. His numerous contributions to the science and art of surgery have given him the title ‘Father of Surgery.’

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          Ayurveda is an ancient system of medicine, and the Charaka Samhita is one of the oldest and most important ancient texts on Ayurveda. It is written in Sanskrit, in the form of poetry, as poems are easier to remember than prose.

          The Charaka Samhita has 8 sections and 150 chapters. It describes over 600 drugs that can be obtained from animals, plants and minerals. It also had a code of conduct for doctors. It says, “A doctor must not betray his patients even at the cost of his own life.” Some people believe the Charaka Samhita was written by a group of scholars. Others say that a famous physician called Charaka who lived during the reign of Kanishka, and was one of the founders of Ayurveda, wrote it.

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          Kanishka was the greatest Kushana ruler. He ruled from his capital, Purushapura between AD 78 and 120. He also constructed a city called Kanishkapuram. Kanishka conquered Kashmir. He also defeated the Chinese and the Saka rulers of Malwa and Gujarat. Kanishka was a great patron of medicine. A new school of art called Gandhara art developed during his time. This was inspired by Buddhism, though it has some Greek influence too. Kanishka is thought to have started the Shaka Era, which was later used as the official calendar of India.

          Kanishka worshipped many gods before he embraced Buddhism. Ashvaghosha, the Buddhist scholar, probably influenced Kanishka to become a Buddhist. Like Ashoka, Kanishka also worked for the spread of Buddhism. He took steps to repair many old monasteries. New ones were also built. During his time, Buddhism spread to China, Japan, Central Asia and Tibet. Kanishka is considered as the second Ashoka because of all these activities.

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          The Kushanas ruled over north India from AD 50 to 300. They belonged to the Yueh-chi tribe of China, which moved towards the west. Kujula Kadphises, a Yuch-Chi chief, who established himself in Kabul and Kashmir founded Kushana dynasty. It was one of the remarkable dynasties of ancient India, both culturally and territorially.

          The Kushanas had their capital at Purushapura (Peshawar) and expanded their empire on both sides of Hind Kush, Turkistan in the north and modern Afghanistan. The Kushanas opened the Silk Road, a major trade path for caravans carrying silk and other prominent goods from China to India and the Middle East. They enriched the cultural ethos of India, by linking Central Asian, Chinese, Indian and Persian cultures.

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          The fall of the Mauryan Empire gave birth to a new dynasty in the south called Satavahanas. It was Simukha, who founded this dynasty. It extended from the mouth of the Krishna River to the whole of the Deccan plateau. The Deccan, during their reign, was a hub of inland and maritime trade. The region between the river of Krishna and Godavari was full of ports, and it was throbbing with activity.

          Currency was in vogue to facilitate trade, and this was an era of great industrial and maritime activity. Buddhism flourished throughout the period, and the Satavahana kings constructed several Buddhist Stupas, Chaityas and Viharas. The Stupa at Amravati is known for its architectural beauty. The Satavahana kings ruled for nearly four hundred years. By the end of the 2nd century AD, their rule came to an end.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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          Megasthenes was a Greek historian from the kingdom of Ionia. The king Seleucus-I sent him as an ambassador to the court of King Chandragupta Maurya. His report about the culture, history and religion of India was the basis of western knowledge about India.

          Megasthenes described the people of Pataliputra as skilled in the arts, and as having plenty of nourishing food. There were not many thieves, and people often left their houses and property unguarded. He described the people of Pataliputra as uncomplicated in their manners, and as seldom going to court against one another.

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              Eight years after being crowned king, Ashoka decided to annex Kalinga, or present day Orissa, into his kingdom. This was the first and last battle that Ashoka ever fought. Though Ashoka won, he was horrified by the sight of the dead and wounded on the battlefield. Over one hundred and fifty thousand   soldiers were captured, and over one hundred thousand were killed. This experience changed Ashoka, and he swore that he would never wage war again. He took up Buddhism, and vowed to practice only virtuous actions in the future.

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          The most important development after the fall of the Mauryas was the arrival of foreign tribal groups into India. Around 200 BC, the Indo-Greeks from Afghanistan began to attack Indian territories. Ashoka’s weak successors could not withstand this invasion.

          The Indo-Greeks were, therefore, able to conquer large areas in India and establish kingdoms there. The most famous Indo-Greek was King Menander, also called Milinda. His capital was at Sakala, which is now Sialkot, in Pakistan. He was very interested in Buddhism, and his discussions with a great Buddhist scholar of the time have been put together in a book called ‘Milinda Panho’ or ‘The questions of Milinda.’ Milinda’s reign was long and successful. His coins testify to the prosperity and extent of Milinda’s empire.

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          Did you know that the national emblem of India has been taken from the Ashoka pillar at Sarnath, and that the Ashoka chakra on the Indian flag was Ashoka’s symbol for the wheel of Dharma?

          Ashoka spread the teachings of Buddha and his own messages by engraving them on stone pillars throughout his kingdom. Since he wanted his words to be everlasting, he chose a medium that would never rust or decay.

          The Ashoka pillars, as they are now called, were over forty feet high and extremely heavy. They are found from Afghanistan in the north to Karnataka in the south. The messages on these pillars were written in Pali, a simple form of Sanskrit, which the common people spoke during Ashoka’s time.

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          The great Indian emperor, Ashoka was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. At his birth, his mother is believed to have said, “Now I am Ashoka”, which means ‘Now I am without sorrow.’ Therefore, the child was named ‘Ashoka’. In 268 BC, Ashoka was crowned king of Magadha, and he proved himself very courageous and a good administrator. He ruled over and empire that covered two-thirds of the Indian continent! He was the most famous of the Mauryan kings, and was one of the greatest rulers of India.

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          Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, became Chandragupta’s prime minister, and legend describes him as being the author of a book titled Arthashastra. ‘Arthashastra’ means the science of property and material success. This success includes political and diplomatic strategy aimed at uniting India.

          According to Kautilya, a ruler should use any means to attain his goal, and his actions required no moral sanction. The only problems discussed are of the most practical kind. Though kings were allowed a free rein, the citizens were subject to a rigid set of rules. Much of our knowledge about the state policy of the Mauryas comes from the Arthashastra, which is a treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy.

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            Chandragupta was the founder of the Maurya dynasty, which ruled ancient India for about 140 years. He was not born a prince. He came from an ordinary family and it is believed that Chandragupta was raised by peacock trainers.

           Some say, he came from a land of peacocks, and that is why he was called ‘Maurya’, a word that comes from ‘mayura’, which means peacock. Chandragupta was the pupil of a brilliant Brahmin called Chanakya. Under his guidance, he started taking over the small villages on the outskirts of the kingdom ruled by King Dhanananda. Finally, in 321 BC, he conquered the capital, Pataliputra, and overthrew King Dhanananda. Chandragupta’s troops conquered many north Indian kingdoms and claimed lands that stretched as far west as Afghanistan. In this way, Chandragupta united northern India under one ruler for the first time in history, and established the Mauryan Empire.

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          Alexander’s invasion resulted in the establishment of Greek settlements in India. It taught the Indian kings the need to be more united among themselves in order to fight off invaders. The skill and discipline of the Greek army inspired the need for a better army.

          Many small kingdoms were destroyed, leading to the establishment of a new empire. India thus came into contact with the European world, and land and sea routes to India became well known. The Greek influence on Indian art can be seen in the Gandhara sculptures, as well as in architecture and science. In short, the Greek influence restructured the Indian states and society, and changed the fabric of the North Indian artistic and scientific world.

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          As Alexander marched through India he fought battles, built altars, and founded cities. One city he called Boukephala in honour of his favourite horse Bucephalus, which died and was buried there.

          Other cities he called Alexandria in honour of his own name. As they journeyed, Alexander and his soldiers saw many new and strange sights. At last, Alexander reached the city of Lahore, and marched on to the banks of the river Sutlej beyond. He was eager to reach the holy river Ganges, and conquer the people there. However, his men had grown weary of fighting under the burning sun and torrential rains of India, and they begged him to go no further. Therefore, greatly against his own will, Alexander turned back.

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