My Science School

Windows have three main purposes: to let light into a building, to allow ventilation, and to allow the occupants to see out. Although glass has been made for thousands of years, it is only comparatively recently those techniques have been developed for making large sheets of glass for windows. Before that, although small sheets of glass were available, they were expensive. Small windows were sometimes covered with thin panels of horn. Although this could not be seen through, it did let in a certain amount of light and kept out cold winds.

While the modern window might seem like a pretty simple contraption, it’s actually made from dozens of carefully-engineered parts. Double-glazed windows are able to insulate far better than a single sheet of glass – but even that required hundreds of years of refinement and engineering before it could be made thick and flat enough to actually see through.

Glass, as a material, is rare in nature. Usually, it comes in the form of obsidian – which is entirely black. Synthetic glass first came to be widespread in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3500 BCE, and came to be used for vases and cups thousands of years after that.

Glass windows, on the other hand, came much later. The ancient Romans used them, sporadically, in the more up-market villas and government buildings – though their optical qualities were far behind what we might expect today. In certain places, like churches, this difficulty became an opportunity: stained glass windows allowed for the depiction of certain religious scenes. In this setting, transparency didn’t matter.

The earliest forms of window glass were ‘broad sheet’. These were made by first blowing a tube of glass, and then cutting off one side and rolling the whole thing flat.

The difficulty of manufacturing glass windows made them something of a status symbol – and this continued right up to Tudor England, where only the wealthiest households could afford windows of a decent size. In Europe, the Italian renaissance left no aspect of culture or industry untouched. Windows there became taller and sleeker, and separated by mullions and transoms (the wooden crossbeams which run across the surface of a window). As time went by, these elements were made progressively narrower – so that more light could pass through the window.

The 17th century saw the introduction of an entirely different sort of window: the sash window. This variety of window consisted of two moving panels, which could slide behind one another to create an opening. Windows of this sort needed to be made from ‘crown glass’: a more affordable material created by spinning discs of the stuff, and then cutting those discs into broad sheets.

Today, our windows are almost universally made from machined ‘float’ glass. This process came about in the mid 19th century, and though it’s been extensively refined since then, the principles used today remain the same: the molten glass is poured into a bath of molten tin. The two materials are immiscible, meaning the sheet floats upon the molten tin as it cools (like oil might float on water). The result is a perfectly smooth sheet on both surfaces, which, after a little bit of extra treatment, becomes perfectly transparent.

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Mirrors are made by coating the back of a sheet of glass with an alloy of mercury and another metal. This means that light does not pass through the glass, but is bounced back to give a reflection.

The nature of modern mirrors is not fundamentally different from a pool of water. When light strikes any surface, some of it will be reflected. Mirrors are simply smooth surfaces with shiny, dark backgrounds that reflect very well. Water reflects well, glass reflects poorly, and polished metal reflects extremely well. The degree of reflectivity—how much light bounces off of a surface—and the diffusivity of a surface—what direction light bounces off of a surface—may be altered. These alterations are merely refinements, however. In general, all reflective surfaces, and hence, all mirrors, are really the same in character.

Man-made mirrors have been in existence since ancient times. The first mirrors were often sheets of polished metal and were used almost exclusively by the ruling classes. Appearance often reflected, and in some cases determined, position and power in society, so the demand for looking glasses was high, as was the demand for the improvement of mirror-making techniques. Silvering—the process of coating the back of a glass sheet with melted silver—became the most popular method for making mirrors in the 1600s. The glass used in these early mirrors was often warped, creating a ripple in the image. In some severe cases, the images these mirrors reflected were similar to those we'd see in a fun-house mirror today. Modern glassmaking and metallurgical techniques make it easy to produce sheets of glass that are very flat and uniformly coated on the back, improving image clarity tremendously. Still, the quality of a mirror depends on the time and materials expended to make it. A handheld purse mirror may reflect a distorted image, while a good bathroom mirror will probably have no noticeable distortions. Scientific mirrors are designed with virtually no imperfections or distorting qualities whatsoever.

Materials technology drastically affects the quality of a mirror. Light reflects best from surfaces that are non-diffusive, that is, smooth and opaque, rather than transparent. Any flaw in this arrangement will detract from the effectiveness of the mirror. Innovations in mirror making have been directed towards flattening the glass used and applying metal coatings of uniform thickness, because light traveling through different thicknesses of glass over different parts of a mirror results in a distorted image. It is due to these irregularities that some mirrors make you look thinner and some fatter than normal. If the metal backing on a mirror is scratched or thin in spots, the brightness of the reflection will also be uneven. If the coating is very thin, it may be possible to see through the mirror. This is how one-way mirrors are made. Non-opaque coating is layered over the thin, metal backing and only one side of the mirror (the reflecting side) is lit. This allows a viewer on the other side, in a darkened room, to see through.

Glass, the main component of mirrors, is a poor reflector. It reflects only about 4 percent of the light which strikes it. It does, however, possess the property of uniformity, particularly when polished. This means that the glass contains very few pits after polishing and will form an effective base for a reflective layer of metal. When the metal layer is deposited, the surface is very even, with no bumps or wells. Glass is also considered a good material for mirrors because it can be molded into various shapes for specialty mirrors. Glass sheets are made from silica, which can be mined or refined from sand. Glass made from natural crystals of silica is known as fused quartz. There are also synthetic glasses, which are referred to as synthetic fused silica. The silica, or quartz, is melted to high temperatures, and poured or rolled out into sheets.

A few other types of glass are used for high-quality scientific grade mirrors. These usually contain some other chemical component to strengthen the glass or make it resistant to certain environmental extremes. Pyrex, for example, is a borosilicate glass—a glass composed of silica and boron—that is used when mirrors must withstand high temperatures.

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Since medieval times, glorious decorative windows have been made by joining small pieces of coloured and painted glass together with lead strips. The lead is soft and easy to bend but strong enough to hold the glass.

The creation of beautiful stained glass windows requires artistic vision and great skill in working with glass and metal. It's an art form that requires tremendous dedication and many years of training. So how did stained glass artists create these works of art so many years ago?

Stained glass windows began with a design. An artist would first develop full-size sketches (called "cartoons") that portrayed the overall composition of the windows, including the shapes of individual pieces of glass, the colors of glass to be used, and the details to be painted onto the glass pieces.

Once the design was complete, individual pieces of glass could be cut from larger pieces of colored glass. Special tools, such as dividing irons and grazing irons, were used to cut and shape pieces of colored glass to fit the shapes called for in the design.

With pieces of colored glass cut and shaped, artists would then paint the individual pieces of glass to achieve the exact colors with the precise details they desired. Stained glass artisans used vitreous paints, which contained powdered glass particles suspended in liquid.

After they were painted, the individual pieces of glass would be fired in a wood-fired oven known as a kiln. The powdered glass particles in the vitreous paint would melt, causing the paint to fuse with the glass permanently.

To assemble the individual glass pieces into a completed panel, the pieces would be held together with narrow, flexible strips of lead, which would be joined together by a lead and tin alloy called solder. Finally, semi-liquid cement was applied to secure the glass pieces within the lead strips and make the finished window waterproof.

While this might sound like a simple, easy process, it was not! There were many variations to the process, and talented artists could spend thousands of hours working on creating large stained glass windows for mosques and cathedrals.

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Glassblowers dip a long tube into molten glass, and then blow air into it as it cools, causing the glass to form a bubble. While it is still very warm, this bubble can be shaped, cut with shears, or added to other glass shapes. A slightly different method is used when glassware is made by machine. Then, lumps of hot glass are placed in a mould and air is blown in to force the glass to the sides of the mould. With both methods, the glass can be engraved, or sandblasted to give it a rough texture, after it has cooled.

Glass blowing is a glass forming technique that humans have used to shape glass since the 1st century B.C. The technique consists of inflating molten glass with a blowpipe to form a sort of glass bubble that can be molded into glassware for practical or artistic purposes.

Thanks to the glass blowing process, glass has been one of the most useful materials in human society for centuries. We’ve laid the exact process, step by step, to give you a better understanding of how exactly we’ve made the best use of this wonderful material.

Before starting the glass blowing process, the glass is placed in a furnace that heats it to a temperature of 2000 degrees, making it malleable. Next, the glass is gathered by inserting one end of the blowpipe into the furnace, and rolling it over the molten glass until a “gob” of glass attaches to it.

The next step is to roll the molten glass on a flat metal slab called a marver. The marver acts as a means to control the shape and temperature of the glass. The glass is taken back and forth from the marver to the glory hole, a hot chamber used to reheat the glass in order to make it malleable again.

To give the glass color and design, it’s dipped in crushed colored glass, which fuses to the main glass piece almost immediately due to the hot temperature. Once the main glass piece has been fused with crushed colored glass, it is taken back to the marvel where it is rolled again.

The final step is to remove the glass from the glass pipe. To do this, steel tweezers called jacks are used to separate the bottom part of the blown glass while rotating the blowpipe. Thanks to the separation with the jacks, the glass can be removed from the blowpipe with one solid tap.

The last step is to take the blown glass to an annealing oven using heat resistant gloves. This allows the glass to cool slowly over several hours, as it is highly perceptive to breaking when exposed to rapid temperature changes.

Hardened metal blades can cut glass but are easily blunted. More often, glass is cut with the hardest natural substance known — a diamond. If a furrow is made in glass with a diamond, it will usually break cleanly when pressure is applied to it.

A glass cutter is a tool used to make a shallow score in one surface of a piece of glass that is to be broken in two pieces. The scoring makes a split in the surface of the glass which encourages the glass to break along the score. Regular, annealed glass can be broken apart this way but not tempered glass as the latter tends to shatter rather than breaking cleanly into two pieces.

A glass cutter may use a diamond to create the split, but more commonly a small cutting wheel made of hardened steel or tungsten carbide 4–6 mm in diameter with a V-shaped profile called a “hone angle” is used. The greater the hone angles of the wheel, the sharper the angle of the V and the thicker the piece of glass it is designed to cut. The hone angle on most hand-held glass cutters is 120°, though wheels are made as sharp as 154° for cutting glass as thick as 0.5 inches (13 mm). Their main drawback is that wheels with sharper hone angles will become dull more quickly than their more obtuse counterparts. The effective cutting of glass also requires a small amount of oil (kerosene is often used) and some glass cutters contain a reservoir of this oil which both lubricates the wheel and prevents it from becoming too hot: as the wheel scores, friction between it and the glass surface briefly generates intense heat, and oil dissipates this efficiently. When properly lubricated a steel wheel can give a long period of satisfactory service. However, tungsten carbide wheels have been proven to have a significantly longer life than steel wheels and offer greater and more reproducible penetration in scoring as well as easier opening of the scored glass.

In the middle Ages, glass was cut with a heated and sharply pointed iron rod. The red hot point was drawn along the moistened surface of the glass causing it to snap apart. Fractures created in this way were not very accurate and the rough pieces had to be chipped or “grozed” down to more exact shapes with a hooked tool called a grozing iron. Between the 14th and 16th centuries, starting in Italy, a diamond-tipped cutter became prevalent which allowed for more precise cutting. Then in 1869 the wheel cutter was developed by Samuel Monce of Bristol, Connecticut, which remains the current standard tool for most glass cutting.

Large sheets of glass are usually cut with a computer-assisted semi-automatic glass cutting table. These sheets are then broken out by hand into the individual sheets of glass (also known as “lites” in the glass industry).

Process

Glass cutters are manufactured with wheels of varying diameters. One of the most popular has a diameter of 5.5 mm. The ratio between the arc of the wheel and the pressure applied with the tool has an important bearing on the degree of penetration. Average hand pressure with this size wheel often gives good results. For a duller wheel on soft glass a larger wheel (e.g., 6 mm) will require no change in hand pressure. A smaller wheel (3 mm) is appropriate for cutting patterns and curves since a smaller wheel can follow curved lines without dragging.

The sheet of glass is typically lubricated along the cutting line with light oil. The cutter is then pressed firmly against the surface of glass and a line is briskly scribed to form a “score” or “cut”. The glass is now weakened along this line and the panel is ready to be split. Running pliers may then be used to “run” or “open” to the split.

General purpose glass is mostly made by the float glass process and is obtainable in thicknesses from 1.5 to 25 mm. Thin float glass tends to cut easily with a sharp cutter. Thicker glass such as 10 mm float glass is significantly more difficult to cut and break; glass with textured or patterned surfaces may demand specialized methods for scoring and opening the cuts.

Plate glass is thick, good quality glass made in huge sheets for shop windows. It’s very smooth surface is made by floating the molten glass onto a bath of molten tin. Tin melts at a lower temperature than glass, so the glass begins to set on the tin and is then passed over rollers as it finishes cooling. The larger the bath of molten tin the larger the glass that can be made.

Plate glass, flat glass or sheet glass is a type of glass, initially produced in plane form, commonly used for windows, glass doors, transparent walls, and windscreens. For modern architectural and automotive applications, the flat glass is sometimes bent after production of the plane sheet. Flat glass stands in contrast to container glass (used for bottles, jars, cups) and glass fiber (used for thermal insulation, in fiberglass composites, and optical communication).

Flat glass has a higher magnesium oxide and sodium oxide content than container glass, and lower silica, calcium oxide, and aluminum oxide content. (From the lower soluble oxide content comes the better chemical durability of container glass against water, which is required especially for storage of beverages and food). Most flat glass is soda-lime glass, produced by the float glass process (1950s). Other processes for making flat glass include:

Scratches can occur on sheet glass from accidental causes. In glass trade terminology these include “block reek” produced in polishing, “runner-cut” or “over/under grind” caused by edge grinding, or a “sleek” or hairline scratch, as well as “crush” or “rub” on the surface.

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Glass is an extraordinarily useful material. The substances from which it is made are easy to find and very cheap. Glass is mainly melted, cooled sand, but other ingredients are added, such as sodium carbonate (soda ash) and limestone. Although it appears solid to us, glass is in fact a liquid, flowing incredibly slowly. When windows that are hundreds of years old are measured, they are found to be slightly thicker at the bottom than at the top, as the glass very gradually flows downwards.

In a commercial glass plant, sand is mixed with waste glass (from recycling collections), soda ash (sodium carbonate), and limestone (calcium carbonate) and heated in a furnace. The soda reduces the sand's melting point, which helps to save energy during manufacture, but it has an unfortunate drawback: it produces a kind of glass that would dissolve in water! The limestone is added to stop that happening. The end-product is called soda-lime-silica glass. It's the ordinary glass we can see all around us.

Once the sand is melted, it is either poured into molds to make bottles, glasses, and other containers, or "floated" (poured on top of a big vat of molten tin metal) to make perfectly flat sheets of glass for windows. Unusual glass containers are still sometimes made by "blowing" them. A "gob" (lump) of molten glass is wrapped around an open pipe, which is slowly rotated. Air is blown through the pipe's open end, causing the glass to blow up like a balloon. With skillful blowing and turning, all kinds of amazing shapes can be made.

Glass makers use a slightly different process depending on the type of glass they want to make. Usually, other chemicals are added to change the appearance or properties of the finished glass. For example, iron and chromium-based chemicals are added to the molten sand to make green-tinted glass. Oven-proof borosilicate glass (widely sold under the trademark PYREX®) is made by adding boron oxide to the molten mixture. Adding lead oxide makes a fine crystal glass that can be cut more easily; highly prized cut lead crystal sparkles with color as it refracts (bends) the light passing through it. Some special types of glass are made by a different manufacturing process. Bulletproof glass is made from a sandwich or laminate of multiple layers of glass and plastic bonded together. Toughened glass used in car windshields is made by cooling molten glass very quickly to make it much harder. Stained (colored) glass is made by adding metallic compounds to glass while it is molten; different metals give the separate segments of glass their different colors.

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Cutting or shaving the wool off of a sheep is called shearing. Shearing doesn't usually hurt a sheep. It's just like getting a haircut. However, shearing requires skill so that the sheep is shorn efficiently and quickly without causing cuts or injury to the sheep or shearer. Most sheep are sheared with electric shears or shearing machines. The fleece is removed in one piece.

Some sheep are sheared manually with scissors or hand blades. While some farmers shear their own sheep, many hire professional sheep shearers. In many countries, including the United States, there is a growing shortage of qualified sheep shearers. Many states hold annual sheep shearing schools.

A professional shearer can shear a sheep in less than 2 minutes. The world record is 37.9 seconds. The record was set in 2016 by Ivan Scott from Ireland. Scott set another record, shearing 867 lambs in just 9 hours. Matt Smith from New Zealand owns the record for shearing the most ewes, 731 ewes in 9 hours. The most Merino ewes sheared in 8 hours is 497, a record set by Lou Brown from New Zealand. The blade shearing record was set over 100 years ago when legendary shearer Jackie Howe sheared 321 sheep in 7 hours and 40 minutes.

In 1957, a New Zealander sheared a sheep in just 47 seconds!

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Natural silk is spun as a thread by silk-worms. They use it to form a cocoon. Unlike other natural threads, the silk-worm’s thread is very long — up to one kilometre (0.62 miles). Traditionally made in Asia, silk was such a sought-after textile that the route from Europe to the East became known as the Great Silk Road.

Silk is made from Silkworms (known as Bombyx mori) and Bombyx mori eats mulberry leaves. The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of the domestic silk moth, Bombyx mori’. Fine silk and Bombyx mori is interconnected worm or moth.

When mulberry leaves put forth their leaves – this is the time that these silkworms are born- these helpless worms feed on the leaves. In the silk manufacturing process, they are kept in a tray filled with carefully selected tender and succulent mulberry leaves for about 25-28 days. It is said that a worm eats about 10,000 times its body weight of mulberry leaves and increase their weight to almost 5000 times in this short span.

Sericulture refers to Rearing of silkworm for the production of silk. When it is fully grown, it climbs onto a twig in the natural environment. In sericulture, it is placed on a special frame. If you are growing it at home you will have to give it a bamboo/plastic/metal frame, for the larvae to weave his cocoon around it.

The worm starts to spins a cocoon around itself. This cocoon is made with a sticky substance that comes out of an opening in its underlip. This is made by mixing a fibroin protein compounds that come out of its salivary glands and another substance called sericin (silk gum) in its mouth.

As it comes out, this sticky substance solidifies when in contact with air into the silk fiber. In three days it makes thousands of meters of this fiber. For about 10-15 days the silkworm will be a pupa inside this self-made home. Then it undergoes metamorphosis into a furry winged moth.

The moth will eventually worm itself out of the cocoon – but this is not allowed to happen unless the moth is required to breed eggs. This will damage the silk fibers in the cocoon or cut it short, so these worms are killed by putting them in boiling water /oven. When the worms are put in boiling water the sticky sericin coating of the silkworm also dissolves.

Sometimes two silkworms will nest together forming a single cocoon producing fibers that are thick and thin – the fabric made from these fibers are called Dupioni silk Cocoons are sorted according to their color and texture. The single cocoon in carefully unraveled and the fiber is wound /reeled on a spool. Usually, about 6 filaments are reeled together to create a thread. The single strands of the thread may be doubled and twisted for strength.

This long thin fiber is silk with many impurities. The fibers are taken out and washed thoroughly to remove any residue/gum etc. The yarns are boiled in a soap solution to remove the natural silk gum or sericin. It has to undergo many washes and treatments before it is usable for weaving. Thus you get your silk filaments ready to be weaved into fabric.

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There are two main ways of patterning fabrics. By using coloured threads in the knitting or weaving, patterns can be made in the fabric itself. This is a very easy way to create stripes and checks, and it is quite cheap to use lots of colours, so the resulting fabric can be very bright. Another method of patterning fabric is to print it, using special dyes. This may be done by big rollers or by squeezing dye through patterned screens. Since only one colour can be printed at a time, each additional colour adds to the cost.

Fabric patterns come in all kinds of colors, shapes, sizes, repeats, and schemes. That’s why picking the right fabric patterns—and mixing prints—can be tricky. So we called on a handful of our favorite designers to help us break down the basics behind some of the most popular fabric patterns out there. From chevron to polka dots and beyond, here’s everything you need to know about themost common fabric patterns. Once you know the names of these patterns and what defines each of them.

Basketweave

Designed to resemble the crisscross weave of a basket, basketweave patterns are either woven or printed onto a fabric to create a symmetrical effect. “As a traditional woven, a basketweave fabric can introduce warmth to a room to balance out more neutral and subdued tones,” says Ella Hall, founder of Stitchroom. “When used correctly, the handmade texture is a great contrast to a muted palette and can also complement a minimalist style.”

Brocade

“A typically shuttle-woven fabric most commonly made with silver or gold thread, brocade has a raised appearance similar to embroidery,” No surprise then that you’re most likely to find brocades in more traditionally designed space. “The ornamental features of this fabric pattern bring a rich and elegant touch to accentuate classic furniture pieces,” she adds.

Checkered

One of the most popular and instantly recognizable patterns on the market, checked, or checkered, fabrics feature a simple checkerboard-style design with alternating colored squares. “Checked fabric has traditionally worked well in farmhouse modern and country design, and while it might originate there, a more contemporary twist has recently brought the countryside to more urbanized spaces.” “This fabric trend is perfect for banquettes with high traffic trying to make a statement through its upholstery fabrication.”

Chevron

Marked by a pattern of zigzagging stripes, chevron fabrics have long been a favorite of designers looking to infuse contemporary flair into a subdued space. “Modern interpretations of the chevron motif have brought new life to the classic that can sometimes feel overwhelming.” “Try selecting a chevron with subtle tonal differences or a textured chevron to contribute to your sofa’s pillowscape.”

Damask

“Martha Stewart is a big fan of damask, and this rich-looking fabric has been used everywhere from English castles to Park Avenue apartments,” Okin says. “A reversible, print-heavy look, damask is typically filled with swirling patterns and looks beautiful in jewel tones. This look works well when executed in silks and taffetas in dramatic, grand rooms.”

Chinoiserie

Drawing from traditional Chinese motifs, chinoiserie style fabrics often feature elaborate scenes of florals, animals, pagodas, and children. “Chinoiserie is a romanticized print that adds a level of sophistication to upholstery,” Hall says. “Whether with curtains, chair upholstery, or throw pillows, chinoiserie fabrics always make a decorative statement.”

Flame Stitch

“Also known as bargello or a Florentine stitch, flame stitch needlework combines long, vertical stitches and bold colors into zigzagging peaks and valleys,” Okin says. “This look was very popular in the 1960s and has a psychedelic element to it, so it’s perfect for funky spaces with a retro vibe.”

Greek Key

“The Greek Key pattern is as old as time really, and it’s more traditional than anything I tend to use,” Roth says. “The pattern is made from a continuous line that repeatedly bends back on itself to create squared spirals. I think of it as a border pattern more than anything else and work well on curtains or bed linens.”

Houndstooth

“The name houndstooth comes from whoever invented the pattern, thinking the checks that make it up look like dog’s teeth, but I think they look more like little bugs,” Roth says. “In my opinion, the pattern is quite handsome and masculine, and it’s a strong accent in a room. I’d use it on a pillow or throw blanket in a study.”

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Knitting is the process wherein thread – or sometimes yarn – is made into cloth and other crafts. It consists of stitches (or loops) of the material consecutively run together. Weaving, on the other hand, is the process in which two types of yarn or threads are interlaced together to form a fabric or cloth. The two types of threads run in different directions, with the warp threads running lengthwise and the weft threads running crosswise or horizontally.

In knitting, the yarn follows a course, or a path, forming well-proportioned loops over and under the yarn’s path. These oblique loops can be elongated easily from most directions, which give the end fabric more elasticity. In weaving, the threads are always straight and perpendicular to each other; they tend to run side by side.

The end fabric of weaving can usually be stretched in only one direction (except in fabrics like spandex), which means less elasticity compared to fabrics formed from knitting. The threads used in knitting are thicker than those used in weaving; knitted fabrics are usually bulkier, while those formed through weaving have more drape and flow resulting from the use of finer threads. In knitting, as each row is done, new loops are pulled through the existing loop. Stitches that are active are held by a needle until a new loop passes through them.

There are also different kinds of yarn and needles that can be used, and they result in products of various colors, textures, weight, and integrity. The loom-a device that holds the warp threads in place while the filling threads are woven through them– is the main equipment used in weaving.

In weaving, the two sets of threads are woven by being interlaced at right angles to each other. Weaving can also be done by hand or machine. The variety of woven products is also largely dependent on the thread colors and the sequence of the raising and lowering of warp threads that can result in different patterns. Both knitted and woven products have recently reached new heights in design and patterns with the advent of more complex but easily used computerized machines.Hand knitting has gone in and out of style several times since then, but many people still pick it up as a hobby. Some types of knitting practiced by manual knitters are flat knitting, circular knitting, and felting.

Compared to knitting, weaving seems to be a much older craft, as some findings have indicated that it has existed since the Palaeolithic era. The Bible also points out several instances of weaving being practiced by Egyptians. Unfortunately, in the modern world, hand weaving is already close to non-existent, as fabrics are mostly designed and created in factories. Some examples of weave structures are the plain, twill, and satin weaves. However, with computer generated interlacing, numerous other weave structures are available in our modern times.

Moreover, knitting can be done individually or in a group as a hobby, and it has also become a social activity. Its popularity has given birth to different knitting clubs formed by knitting enthusiasts who not only knit together, but share patterns, designs, and newly finished products with each other. Weaving is still recognized as a popular craft, but due to its complexity, most processes for clothing fabrics are done in factories with machines that make the procedure much faster and easier. That being said, do not expect to encounter weaving clubs composed of housewives getting together to share weaving patterns like they do in knitting clubs.

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Threads from plants and animals are usually not more than a few centimetres long. To make a long, strong thread for weaving or knitting, they must be spun. A carding machine combs the fibres so that they are all lying in the same direction and form a loose rope. This rope is then gently drawn out into a thinner thread and twisted into yarn.

Spinning is the twisting techniques where the fiber is drawn out, twisted, and wound onto a bobbin.The yarn issuing from the drafting rollers passes through a thread-guide, round a traveller that is free to rotate around a ring, and then onto a tube or bobbin, which is carried on a spindle, the axis of which passes through a center of the ring. The spindle is driven (usually at an angular velocity that is either constant or changes only slowly) and the traveller is dragged around a ring by the loop of yarn passing round it. If the drafting rollers were stationary, the angular velocity of the traveller would be the same as that of the spindle and each revolution of the spindle would cause one turn of twist to be inserted in the loop of yarn between the roller nip and the traveller. In spinning, however, the yarn is continually issuing from the rollers of the drafting system and, under these circumstances, the angular velocity of the traveller is less than that of the spindle by an amount that is just sufficient to allow the yarn to be wound onto the bobbin at the same rate as that at which it issues from the drafting rollers.

Each revolution of the traveller now inserts one turn of twist into the loop of yarn between the roller nip and the traveller but, in equilibrium, the number of turns of twist in the loop of yarn remains constant as twisted yarn is passing through the traveller at a corresponding rate.

Artificial fibres are made by extruding a polymer through a spinneret into a medium where it hardens. Wet spinning (rayon) uses a coagulating medium. In dry spinning (acetate and triacetate), the polymer is contained in a solvent that evaporates in the heated exit chamber. In melt spinning (nylons and polyesters) the extruded polymer is cooled in gas or air and sets. All these fibres will be of great length, often kilometers long.

Natural fibres are from animals (sheep, goat, rabbit, silkworm), minerals (asbestos), or plants (cotton, flax, sisal). These vegetable fibres can come from the seed (cotton), the stem (known as bast fibres: flax, hemp, jute) or the leaf (sisal). Many processes are needed before a clean even staple is obtained. With the exception of silk, each of these fibres is short, only centimetres in length, and each has a rough surface that enables it to bond with similar staples.Artificial fibres can be processed as long fibres or batched and cut so they can be processed like a natural fibre.

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Substances called dyes are used to colour threads and textiles. In the past, natural dyes were used, made mainly from plants. Onion skins, for example, give a soft, reddish colour. Most natural dyes fade gradually when washed or exposed to light, which can be very attractive. Many people like the faded colour of denim jeans, for example, dyed with a natural plant-based dye called indigo. Modern chemical dyes do not fade so easily. They give strong, bright colours. Either skeins of thread or finished fabrics may be dyed by passing them through a dye bath, then fixing the dye with other chemicals and drying the result.

Dyeing in textiles is a process in which color is transferred to a finished textile or textile material (like fibers and yarns) to add permanent and long-lasting color. It can be done by hand or by machine. Dyes can come as powders, crystals, pastes, or liquid dispersions and they dissolve completely in an aqueous solution like water. When the textile and the dye come into contact, the textile is completely saturated by the dye and colored.

But what's the difference between paint and dye? Paint is a complex substance, and when you use it, you're usually coating the surface of something. Unlike paint, dyes actually change the crystal structure of substances. The details involve a long chemistry discussion, but what you really need to understand is that dyes are more saturating and more permanent. This is important because you want the fabric color to last through many wearings and washings. And yes, most dyed textile material is used to make clothing.

Humans have been dyeing textiles for a very, very long time, and in fact, scholars find early mention of dyeing textiles as far back as 2600 BCE! Dyeing can be done at any stage of the manufacturing process. Makers don't have to wait until the whole cloth has been made in order to dye it.

Before we discuss some dye types, you should know that there are many different types of dyes and we're only going to discuss a few of them. Now, let's review two primary categories before moving on to dye types. Natural dyes come from sources like plants, minerals, and animals. They have a long history, but aren't used much for commercial textiles anymore. You'll find artists and craftspeople using them for hand-made products and for traditional crafts. Synthetic dyes are made in a laboratory, and the chemicals are often derived from sources like coal tar or petroleum-based substances.

Basic dye dissolves in water and requires a mordant. A mordant is a chemical that forms a bond with the dye to make it insoluble, which means the color stays on the textile when it's rinsed following dyeing. This process tends to be used with fabrics like nylon and polyester. Direct dyes, on the other hand, don't require a mordant, and are used to dye natural fibers like wool, cotton, and silk. Then, there are vat dyes, made of materials like indigo. Indigo is a plant that provides a deep blue color and is one of the oldest natural dyes. Substances used in vat dyes must be treated with a liquid alkaline substance (something that reduces acid) to allow them to be used as a dye.

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At one time, fibres for textiles came from either plants or animals. The former included cotton from the cotton plant and linen from flax, but also coarser fibres for rope, sacking and matting, such as hemp, jute, sisal and even coconut fibres. Animal-based fibres have been spun from the coats of sheep, goats, camels, llamas and, by real enthusiasts, dogs! Nowadays, there are also artificial fibres, spun from mixtures of chemicals. By mixing different fibres together, it is possible to make fabrics for every purpose.

Fiber is a hair-like strand of material. It is flexible and can be spun or twisted for weaving, braiding, knitting, crocheting, etc. to make desired products. Fibers can be obtained in natural form from plants and animals as well as in synthetic form. Man-made or synthetic fibers are either made up of chemicals or by processing natural fibers to create new fiber structures/properties.

Fiber is the fundamental component required for making textile yarns and fabrics. There are two types – natural and synthetic. Natural fibers come from animals (sheep, goats, camelids, etc.) or vegetable-based fibers (cotton, flax, linen, and other plant fibers). Mineral fibers (asbestos, etc) are also classified as a natural fiber.

Synthetic fibers are man-made and manufactured from synthetic chemicals – (byproducts of the petrochemical industries) – nylon, polyester, acetates.The characteristics of fibers directly affect the properties of the fabric it is woven into.

The history of fibers is as old as human civilization. Traces of natural fibers have been located to ancient civilizations all over the globe. For many thousand years, the usage of fiber was limited by natural fibers such as flax, cotton, silk, wool and plant fibers for different applications.

Fibers can be divided into natural fibers and man-made or chemical fibers. Flax is considered to be the oldest and the most used natural fiber since ancient times.A unit of matter which is capable of being spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by bonding or by interlacing in a variety of methods including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, twisting, or webbing, and which is the basic structural element of textile products.

It is the smallest textile component which is a microscopic hair-like substance that may be man-made or natural.They have length at least hundred times to that of their diameter or width.

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Glueing, sewing or stapling pages together and placing them within a cover is called binding. Several pieces of card and paper are required to bind a hardback book. It is also possible to add bookmark ribbons and little pieces of fabric called headbands at the top and bottom of the spine (back) of the book.

A hardcover or hardback (also known as hardbound, and sometimes as case-bound) book is one bound with rigid protective covers (typically of binder’s board or heavy paperboard covered with buckram or other cloth, heavy paper, or occasionally leather). It has a flexible, sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened. Following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk.

Hardcover books are often printed on acid-free paper, and they are much more durable than paperbacks, which have flexible, easily damaged paper covers. Hardcover books are marginally more costly to manufacture. Hardcovers are frequently protected by artistic dust jackets, but a "jacketless" alternative has increased in popularity: these "paper-over-board" or "jacketless hardcover" bindings forgo the dust jacket in favor of printing the cover design directly onto the board binding.

Hardcovers typically consist of a page block, two boards, and a cloth or heavy paper covering. The pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, and it too is covered by the cloth. A paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is usually put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. Dust jackets serve to protect the underlying cover from wear. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is generally a blurb, or a summary of the book. The back flap is where the biography of the author can be found. Reviews are often placed on the back of the jacket. Many modern bestselling hardcover books use a partial cloth cover, with cloth covered board on the spine only, and only boards covering the rest of the book.

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