My Science School

At one time, fibres for textiles came from either plants or animals. The former included cotton from the cotton plant and linen from flax, but also coarser fibres for rope, sacking and matting, such as hemp, jute, sisal and even coconut fibres. Animal-based fibres have been spun from the coats of sheep, goats, camels, llamas and, by real enthusiasts, dogs! Nowadays, there are also artificial fibres, spun from mixtures of chemicals. By mixing different fibres together, it is possible to make fabrics for every purpose.

Fiber is a hair-like strand of material. It is flexible and can be spun or twisted for weaving, braiding, knitting, crocheting, etc. to make desired products. Fibers can be obtained in natural form from plants and animals as well as in synthetic form. Man-made or synthetic fibers are either made up of chemicals or by processing natural fibers to create new fiber structures/properties.

Fiber is the fundamental component required for making textile yarns and fabrics. There are two types – natural and synthetic. Natural fibers come from animals (sheep, goats, camelids, etc.) or vegetable-based fibers (cotton, flax, linen, and other plant fibers). Mineral fibers (asbestos, etc) are also classified as a natural fiber.

Synthetic fibers are man-made and manufactured from synthetic chemicals – (byproducts of the petrochemical industries) – nylon, polyester, acetates.The characteristics of fibers directly affect the properties of the fabric it is woven into.

The history of fibers is as old as human civilization. Traces of natural fibers have been located to ancient civilizations all over the globe. For many thousand years, the usage of fiber was limited by natural fibers such as flax, cotton, silk, wool and plant fibers for different applications.

Fibers can be divided into natural fibers and man-made or chemical fibers. Flax is considered to be the oldest and the most used natural fiber since ancient times.A unit of matter which is capable of being spun into a yarn or made into a fabric by bonding or by interlacing in a variety of methods including weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, twisting, or webbing, and which is the basic structural element of textile products.

It is the smallest textile component which is a microscopic hair-like substance that may be man-made or natural.They have length at least hundred times to that of their diameter or width.

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Glueing, sewing or stapling pages together and placing them within a cover is called binding. Several pieces of card and paper are required to bind a hardback book. It is also possible to add bookmark ribbons and little pieces of fabric called headbands at the top and bottom of the spine (back) of the book.

A hardcover or hardback (also known as hardbound, and sometimes as case-bound) book is one bound with rigid protective covers (typically of binder’s board or heavy paperboard covered with buckram or other cloth, heavy paper, or occasionally leather). It has a flexible, sewn spine which allows the book to lie flat on a surface when opened. Following the ISBN sequence numbers, books of this type may be identified by the abbreviation Hbk.

Hardcover books are often printed on acid-free paper, and they are much more durable than paperbacks, which have flexible, easily damaged paper covers. Hardcover books are marginally more costly to manufacture. Hardcovers are frequently protected by artistic dust jackets, but a "jacketless" alternative has increased in popularity: these "paper-over-board" or "jacketless hardcover" bindings forgo the dust jacket in favor of printing the cover design directly onto the board binding.

Hardcovers typically consist of a page block, two boards, and a cloth or heavy paper covering. The pages are sewn together and glued onto a flexible spine between the boards, and it too is covered by the cloth. A paper wrapper, or dust jacket, is usually put over the binding, folding over each horizontal end of the boards. Dust jackets serve to protect the underlying cover from wear. On the folded part, or flap, over the front cover is generally a blurb, or a summary of the book. The back flap is where the biography of the author can be found. Reviews are often placed on the back of the jacket. Many modern bestselling hardcover books use a partial cloth cover, with cloth covered board on the spine only, and only boards covering the rest of the book.

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The word “textile” may be used to describe any woven material, or, more broadly, any cloth. Most fabrics are made from threads. These may be looped or passed under and over each other to create a firm cloth, or they may simply be matted together to form a kind of felt. There are thousands of different kinds of textile, each with its own properties and uses.

Textiles refer to materials that are made from fibers, thin threads or filaments which are natural or manufactured or a combination. Textiles are created by interlocking these yarns in specific patterns resulting in a length of cloth

The textile fibers are spun into yarn and then made into fabric by different methods like weaving, knitting, and felting. It forms the building block of a garment. So many properties of the fiber, like fiber type, yarn gauge, twist yarns per inch, weave float, and how it is processed and finished determine the final product.

When you got up this morning, you likely threw off the bed covers. Then, you went into the bathroom where you stepped on a rug. After leaving the bathroom you probably put on some clothing. Then, you sat down at a table that may have had a tablecloth on it. From there, you went to your car and sat down on a car seat. You came in to work and sat on a padded chair.

Those covers, rugs, clothes, tablecloths, car seat upholstery, and chair upholstery, were all example of textiles. A textile is a material made of natural or synthetic fibers.

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Pages in a book are not printed one by one. They are printed on huge sheets of paper that then pass through another machine to be folded. When the book is bound (put into its cover), the edges of the pages are cut on a guillotine. A piece of paper folded in half creates four pages. Larger sheets of paper are folded to make 16, 32 or even 64 pages.

Most booklets are created with the Saddle-Stitch binding method. This method uses printed sheets that are folded and nested one inside the other and then stapled through the fold line with wire staples. The staples pass through the folded crease from the outside and are clinched between the centermost pages. The result is a very simple yet professional looking document.

Despite its relative simplicity, saddle-stitch booklets often pose a challenge for someone new to graphic design. This is because the page set-up for saddle-stitched booklets requires a different approach than for other types of bound books.

Saddle-stitched booklets are constructed of folded sheets. As such, each folded sheet joined within the finished booklet will form four pages of the booklet. This means the page count of every saddle-stitched booklet must always be a multiple of four (4). It is not possible to create a 7-page, 10-page, or 25-page saddle-stitched booklet. All saddle-stitched booklets must contain 4 pages, 8 pages, 12 pages, 16 pages, 20 pages, 24 pages and so on. Even if a page in the booklet is blank, it still counts as a page.

Needless to say, creating the layout file properly at the onset will help optimize your booklet’s press run…saving time, effort, and expense for all involved. The software you use to create the booklet will likely give you file layout choices, such as Reader Spreads or Printer Spreads. Because printing presses and production methods vary from print shop to print shop, do not automatically set up your booklet file in a particular spread or configuration without first consulting the printer you intend to use for producing your booklet.

A typeface is an alphabet that has been specially designed for printing. It can usually be used in a variety of sizes and styles. The typeface chosen has a huge effect on how a printed page looks. Some typefaces are designed to be easy to read. Others are meant to catch the eye in headings and titles. Today, computers make it easy to manipulate type, stretching it or squashing it, for example, to create special effects. It is also easy to adapt typefaces or create your own. Each set of letters, numbers and symbols in a type-face is called a font.

A typeface is a set of characters of the same design. These characters include letters, numbers, punctuation marks, and symbols. Some popular typefaces include Arial, Helvetica, Times, and Verdana. While most computers come with a few dozen typefaces installed, there are thousands of typefaces available. Because they are vector-based (not bitmaps), typefaces can be scaled very large and still look sharp. The term "typeface" is often confused with “font,” which is a specific size and style of a typeface. For example, Verdana is a typeface, while Verdana 10 pt bold is a font. It's a small difference, but is good to know.

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The page to be printed passes between inked rollers or plates four times, each time with a different coloured ink being used. In order to make sure that the final image is clear and sharp, the four printings must line up exactly on top of each other. This is known as registration. Registration marks, at the corners of a page, help the printer to position the images accurately. You may have seen a strip of coloured shapes on the edge of a printed food- packet. These also enable the printer to see at a glance if the four printings have been properly positioned.

Four color process printing uses four ink colors – Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black. These four colors are applied one after the other on a printing press. They overlap each other in various concentrations on the paper to create the visual effect we know as full color printing. Because these four colors combine to make an image, the proper registration of these colors is crucial to produce a sharp image. Even a slight position shift in one of the four colors will cause the printed image to appear blurred or fuzzy.

For the same reason as above, proper registration is also a concern for two-color and three-color printing. One-color printing is not concerned with ink registration since only one ink color is used (but like all printing jobs, the ink must be properly registered to the paper so that the image transfers to its intended location – i.e., not closer to one edge of the paper than intended).

A term related to ink registration is Close Registration, which means that the printed image has two or more ink colors that touch or are very near each other. By its nature, four color process printing always has close registration. Two-color and three-color printing may or may not have close registration, it just depends on the intended design. Jobs with close registration should be printed in a single pass through a printing press to ensure the ink colors align properly with each other.

Proper registration is also an important consideration for multi-part forms. Each ply of the form must be assembled in the same relative position so entries made on the top ply transfer properly to each subsequent ply. Have you ever filled out a multi-part form only to notice that what you wrote on the top was slightly out of position on a different ply? This is because the form’s ply-to-ply registration was off.

Some printed images use one solid colour. These words are printed in solid black ink, for example. The dots are so close together that no background colour shows through. Using increasingly widely spaced dots creates the impression of paler tones of grey.

The color model (process color, four color) is a subtractive color model, based on the CMY color model, used in color printing, and is also used to describe the printing process itself. CMYK refers to the four ink plates used in some color printing: Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Key (black).

The CMYK model works by partially or entirely masking colors on a lighter, usually white, background. The ink reduces the light that would otherwise be reflected. Such a model is called subtractive because inks "subtract" the colors red, green and blue from white light. White light minus red leaves cyan, white light minus green leaves magenta, and white light minus blue leaves yellow.

In additive color models, such as RGB, white is the "additive" combination of all primary colored lights, while black is the absence of light. In the CMYK model, it is the opposite: white is the natural color of the paper or other background, while black results from a full combination of colored inks. To save cost on ink, and to produce deeper black tones, unsaturated and dark colors are produced by using black ink instead of the combination of cyan, magenta, and yellow.

With CMYK printing, half-toning (also called screening) allows for less than full saturation of the primary colors; tiny dots of each primary color are printed in a pattern small enough that humans perceive a solid color. Magenta printed with a 20% halftone, for example, produces a pink color, because the eye perceives the tiny magenta dots on the large white paper as lighter as and less saturated than the color of pure magenta ink.

Without half-toning, the three primary process colors could be printed only as solid blocks of color, and therefore could produce only seven colors: the three primaries themselves, plus three secondary colors produced by layering two of the primaries: cyan and yellow produce green, cyan and magenta produce blue, yellow and magenta produce red (these subtractive secondary colors correspond roughly to the additive primary colors), plus layering all three of them resulting in black. With half-toning, a full continuous range of colors can be produced.

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However colourful a page in a book may be, it is probably made up of only four colours. Tiny dots of yellow, blue, red and black inks are used to print the page. The dots are so small that they cannot usually be seen with the naked eye. Instead, they “mix” visually to form all the colours on the final page.

4-Color Process is the most widely used method for printing full-color images. All commercial printers use the 4-Color Process method for projects that contain multi-colored designs or photographs. This includes books, catalogs, manuals, magazines, brochures, postcards and any other printed items that contain full color images. Because of its widespread use in both offset and digital printing, 4-Color Process is much more affordable today than in years past.

As its name implies, 4 ink colors are used in 4-Color Process printing. These four colors are Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, and Black…which are known collectively as CMYK. In fact, 4-Color Process printing is frequently referred to as CMYK printing. It is also known as Four Color Printing, 4CP, Full Color Printing, or simply Process Printing.

Full-color images are created on the printing press by applying separate layers of the Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black inks. Thousands of colors can be reproduced by overlapping these CMYK colors in various concentrations. Applied as tiny dots on the paper (or other substrate), the four CMYK colors combine to create the visual effect we know as full color printing. Look at the photographs in a printed magazine or brochure under strong magnification and you will see the distinct CMYK dots.

No. Sometimes there are certain colors that cannot be reproduced exactly using the 4-Color Process method. In this case, PMS colors (also known as Spot colors or Pantone Matching System colors) are used to create a particular color. PMS colors are specific color formulas that will reproduce accurately in print. Instead of simulating colors by layering multiple ink colors with the CMYK 4-Color Process, PMS ink colors are pre-mixed from existing color formulas and assigned a standardized number.

PMS colors are often used in conjunction with the four CMYK process colors on certain projects. These are referred to as 5-color or 6-color projects because they use the four CMYK colors plus one or two PMS colors (or more) for certain elements of the design, such as a corporate logo. PMS colors generally involve an upcharge, so they are usually reserved for projects that require a specific color (or colors) that cannot be reproduced accurately by layering the four CMYK colors.

Only a small percentage of full-color projects necessitate the addition of PMS colors because most graphic designers refer to a Pantone Process Book and then use the process color formula that is closest to the desired PMS Spot color. So if you intend to print the entire piece using CMYK 4-color process, it is important that you don’t designate PMS Spot colors in your artwork design. Otherwise when your PMS Spot color is converted to a CMYK process color to create printed output, it could yield a result you weren’t anticipating. If in doubt, always consult with your printer before getting too deep into your project.

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Printing—producing identical copies of a picture or piece of writing by pressing an inked block onto a surface — was introduced by the Chinese over a thousand years ago. However, the breakthrough of movable type, which meant that a new block could be made up from existing pieces of type, without having to carve it from scratch, was developed in 1438 by Johannes Gutenberg, in Germany. This was still a fairly slow, manual method, although much faster than the alternative of writing documents out by hand. It was not until the invention of steam and, later, electrical machinery to power the presses that documents could be printed rapidly on a large scale.

Nearly 600 years before Gutenberg, Chinese monks were setting ink to paper using a method known as block printing, in which wooden blocks are coated with ink and pressed to sheets of paper. One of the earliest surviving books printed in this fashion — an ancient Buddhist text known as "The Diamond Sutra" — was created in 868 during the Tang (T'ang) Dynasty (618-909) in China. The book, which was sealed inside a cave near the city of Dunhuang, China, for nearly a thousand years before its discovery in 1900, is now housed in the British Library in London.

The carved wooden blocks used for this early method of printing were also used in Japan and Korea as early as the eighth century. Private printers in these places used both wood and metal blocks to produce Buddhist and Taoist treatises and histories in the centuries before movable type was invented.

An important advancement to woodblock printing came in the early eleventh century, when a Chinese peasant named Bi Sheng (Pi Sheng) developed the world's first movable type. Though Sheng himself was a commoner and didn't leave much of a historical trail, his ingenious method of printing, which involved the production of hundreds of individual characters, was well-documented by his contemporary, a scholar and scientist named Shen Kuo.

But all that changed in the middle of the 15th century, when Johannes Gutenberg established himself as a goldsmith and craftsman in Strasbourg, Germany.

Like Bi Sheng, Wang Chen and Baegun before him, Gutenberg determined that to speed up the printing process, he would need to break the conventional wooden blocks down into their individual components — lower- and upper-case letters, punctuation marks, etc. He cast these movable blocks of letters and symbols out of various metals, including lead, antimony and tin. He also created his own ink using linseed oil and soot — a development that represented a major improvement over the water-based inks used in China.

But what really set Gutenberg apart from his predecessors in Asia was his development of a press that mechanized the transfer of ink from movable type to paper. Adapting the screw mechanisms found in wine presses, papermakers' presses and linen presses, Gutenberg developed a press perfectly suited for printing. The first printing press allowed for an assembly line-style production process that was much more efficient than pressing paper to ink by hand. For the first time in history, books could be mass-produced — and at a fraction of the cost of conventional printing methods.

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In India currency notes are made up of pulp-containing cotton and balsam with special dyes to make the currency notes that should be resilient, durable, with quality to resist from wear and tear and not to be faked easily.

The materials used in the making of Indian currency notes have been starch paper blended with the textile fibers. While making currencies, these papers are instilled with gelatin to give strength to the currencies.

Chinese were the first to make currency notes and in ancient times Chinese currencies were made up of paper with mulberry bark and currently Japan has been using this fiber to make Japanese Yen currencies. Making of Indian currency notes is processed at Hoshangabad Security Paper Mill in Madhya Pradesh.

Banknotes also consist of a watermark and thread compromising of fluorescent, magnetic, metallic and micro print elements.

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Paper can be made from almost any kind of plant fibre. In some parts of the world, banana stalks and sugar-cane stems made fine, strong paper. On the whole, the longer fibres, the stronger paper. Paper money is folded, pushed into wallets and pocket, and passed from hand to hand. It needs to be very strong. A special paper is made that may contain cotton fiber (which come from cotton plants) or linen fiber (from flax plants).

Paper is made out of leaves and other plant fibers; you can find it in most art supply stores. Money is made with cotton fibers because they are stronger. The reason tress are used to make paper is that they provide the most fiber per square acre. There is not enough other fiber in the world to meet the demand for paper. Cotton was used for hundreds of years until the demand for paper was too much to keep up. Cotton rags were imported from other countries to try to keep up with demand until the 1800’s when somebody figured out how to get the fiber out of the trees by “digesting” them. The first paper we find in history was made from rice around 100 AD in China. Cigarette paper is still made with rice. All plants have cellulose fibers, leaves just don’t have as many fibers as wood.

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Paper was first made 2000 years ago in China. It was made from pulped rags and old fishing nets, drained on a sieve made of bamboo! Paper may not immediately seem to be an ideal building material, but it is light and cheap, and allows a certain amount of light to pass through it. It is ideal for use with bamboo, which is also very light. Paper has been used in China and Japan for centuries to make screens and internal sliding walls in houses. Although these are not soundproof, they are very attractive and easily replaced if damaged.

Paper making is one of the inventions by Chinese. 105 A.D. is often cited as the year in which papermaking was invented. In that year, historical records show that the invention of paper was reported to the Eastern Han Emperor Ho-di by Ts'ai Lun, an official of the Imperial Court. Recent archaeological investigations, however, place the actual invention of papermaking some 200 years earlier. Ts'ai Lun broke the bark of a mulberry tree into fibres and pounded them into a sheet. Later it was discovered that the quality of paper could be much improved with the addition of rags hemp and old fish nets to the pulp. The paper was soon widely used in China and spread to the rest of world through the Silk Road. An official history written some centuries later explained: In ancient times writing was generally on bamboo or on pieces of silk, which were then called it. But silk being expensive and bamboo heavy, these twoich materials were not convenient. Then Tsai Lun thought of using tree bark hemp, rags, and fish nets. In 105 he made a report to the emperor on the process of paper making, and received high praise for his ability. From this time paper has been in use everywhere and is called the "paper of Marquis Tsai."

In few years, the Chinese began to use paper for writing. Around 600 A.D. woodblock printing was invented and by 740 A.D., The first printed newspaper was seen in China.

To the east, papermaking moved to Korea, where production of paper began as early as the 6th century AD. Pulp was prepared from the fibers of hemp, rattan, mulberry, bamboo, rice straw, and seaweed. According to tradition, a Korean monk named Don-cho brought papermaking to Japan by sharing his knowledge at the Imperial Palace in approximately AD 610, sixty years after Buddhism was introduced in Japan.

Along the Silk Road, we learned that paper was introduced to Xinjiang area very early according to the archaeological records. The paper found at Kaochang, Loulan, Kusha, Kotan, and Dunhuang sites dated as early as the 2nd century. The technique eventually reached Tibet around 650 A.D. and then to India after 645 A.D. By the time Hsuan Tsang from China arrived to India in 671 A.D., paper was already widely used there.

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Cardboard is really just very thick paper. The machine that makes it is slightly different because the card is not wound onto a reel at the end, but cut up into sheets. For making strong, light boxes, corrugated cardboard is often used. This has paper pressed into a ridged shape sandwiched between two outer sheets.

We’ll discuss how strong cardboard boxes are, and why they are important for being able to carry anything.

The truth is, they seem disproportionally strong, and many are able to hold up to anything from 30 to 80 pounds, depending on both size, and quality, but if you get a double-walled cardboard box, you can minimally put about 60 pounds in there, up to 150 pounds in item weight. That’s huge!

How does this work? Cardboard is a single corrugated sheet, and a single wall one is made from kraft paper and glue, and three sheets are essentially stuck together with an adhesive of cornstarch, and then folded into the shape of a box, and from there assembled.  This might seem so simple, but it allows for a strong container.

So, how does it get the strength that it does? The secret is the construction of it, which is easier to understand when you equate it to normal construction processes.  You can imagine something being created? With pillars, beams, and the like, you’ll notice that those tend to be much smaller than the rest of the building, but they are capable of adding valuable and necessary support to a structure that would otherwise collapse.  Those small parts are what keep it together.

The corrugated parts of this are what help with strength, and the middle, in turn, acts as a type of support that allows for strength to be utilized to the outer sheets as well. Standard steel I beam, for example, is simple, but it has a design that allows for lots of support. The same is for cardboard.  The small corrugated areas are essentially tiny I-beams, and it works in the same way a bridge does, where it uses truss structure to bring more strength to both the interior and the exterior walls, so you’ll get double walled cardboard that’s much stronger than others.

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Nowadays most paper is made from specially grown trees. These trees are usually softwoods, grown in the cooler parts of the world where little else can thrive. Fir, pine, spruce, larch and cedar trees are all used. The trees do not have to be very tall or straight, as they do for timber. Almost all parts of the tree, except the bark, can be ground up into fibres for papermaking.

Most plant materials also contain nonfibrous elements or cells, and these also are found in pulp and paper. The nonfibrous cells are less desirable for papermaking than fibres but, mixed with fibre, are of value in filling in the sheet. It is probably true that paper of a sort can be produced from any natural plant. The requirements of paper quality and economic considerations, however, limit the sources of supply.

Pulped forest tree trunks (boles) are by far the predominant source of papermaking fibre. The bole of a tree consists essentially of fibres with a minimum of nonfibrous elements, such as pith and parenchyma cells.

Forests of the world contain a great number of species, which may be divided into two groups: coniferous trees, usually called softwoods, and deciduous trees, or hardwoods. Softwood cellulose fibres measure from about 2 to 4 millimetres (0.08 to 0.16 inch) in length, and hardwood fibres range from about 0.5 to 1.5 millimetres (0.02 to 0.06 inch). The greater length of softwood fibres contributes strength to paper; the shorter hardwood fibres fill in the sheet and give it opacity and a smooth surface.

Since cellulose fibre is a major constituent of the stems of plants, a vast number of plants represent potential sources of paper; many of these have been pulped experimentally. A rather substantial number of plant sources have been used commercially, at least on a small scale and at various times and places. Indeed, the use of cereal straws for paper predates the use of wood pulp and is widely practiced today throughout the world, although on a relatively small scale of production. Because many parts of the world are deficient in forests, the development of the paper industry in these areas appears to depend to a considerable degree upon the use of annual plants and agricultural fibres.

Nonwoody plant stems differ from wood in containing less total cellulose, less lignin, and more of other materials. This means that pulps of high cellulose content (high purity) are produced in relatively low yield, whereas pulps of high yield contain high proportions of other materials. Papers made from these pulps without admixture of other fibre tend to be dense and stiff, with low tear resistance and low opacity.

The morphology (form and structure) of the cells of annual plants also differs considerably from wood. Whereas the nonfibrous (parenchyma) cells of coniferous wood constitute a minor proportion of the wood substance, in annual plants this cell type is a major constituent. As hardwoods also often contain considerable amounts of nonfibrous cells, there is a closer resemblance between hardwood pulps and pulps from annual plants.

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A dandy roll has raised patterns on it. As it presses onto the wet paper at the end of the wire, it leaves impressions called watermarks. If you hold a piece of paper up to the light, you may see a pattern or wording left by a dandy roll.

A wire-covered cylinder located toward the end of the forming section of a papermaking machine that is used to squeeze excess water out of the wet paper furnish and even out the formation of the paper web. Raised designs woven into the dandy roll wire are used to add wove finish or laid finish texture to the paper, as well as a watermark.

The dandy roll was invented in 1826 in England by John Marshall, a maker of molds for watermarking handmade paper. After the invention of the papermaking machine (Fourdrinier brother), he developed the dandy roll technique as a means of watermarking machine-made paper. (Watermarks, Laid Finish, and Wove Finish.)

The dandy roll improves quality on Fourdrinier wire machines up to 1,000 m/min. The key feature is the patented self-supporting honeycomb with a large open surface. The honeycomb is easy to clean and prevents undesirable ring marks in the paper due to its special design. The dandy roll works by being immersed into the free suspension and lightly wrapped by the wire. By unwinding the dandy roll wire on the top side of the web, the latter is smoothed. The intake pressure causes the stock water to penetrate the dandy roll fabric into the interior of the dandy roll. The flow is thus oriented in such a way that freely floating fibers in the suspension reach the fabric and are deflocculated there. The combined steam-water spray tube, the simple adjusting unit, quick retraction and heated chamfers are some of the other tried and tested features of the well-engineered dandy roll device.

Water that is centrifuged out of the dandy roll into the outlet is securely caught with a drop collection device, which can easily be retrofitted onto the dandy rolls of other manufacturers.