My Science School

Research chemists examine different chemicals to find out how they react with other chemicals and with living cells. When a mixture of chemicals is thought to have potential in the treatment of certain conditions, various combinations of the chemicals will be tested to see whether they might be dangerous to living things. Tests on individual cells and on animals are made before human beings are given the new drug. Many people think that drug-testing on animals is wrong, but others feel that this is the best way to make sure that drugs are safe. Trials of the drug, in which some patients are given a placebo (a drug with no active ingredients), carried out to assess the drug’s effectiveness. It is usually only after many years of testing and monitoring that the drug is released for use by doctors.

The journey will have begun in a university laboratory where researchers, with grants from the research bodies or the pharmaceutical industry, have undertaken basic research to understand the processes behind a disease, often at a cellular or molecular level. It is through better understanding of disease processes and pathways that targets for new treatments are identified. This might be a gene or protein instrumental to the disease process that a new treatment could interfere with, for example, by blocking an essential receptor.

Once a potential target has been identified, researchers will then search for a molecule or compound that acts on this target. Historically, researchers have looked to natural compounds from plants, fungi or marine animals to provide the basis for these candidate drugs but, increasingly, scientists are using knowledge gained from the study of genetics and proteins to create new molecules using computers. As many as 10,000 compounds may be considered and whittled down to just 10 to 20 that could theoretically interfere with the disease process.

The next stage is to confirm that these molecules have an effect and that they are safe. Before any molecules are given to humans, safety and efficacy tests are conducted using computerised models, cells and animals. Around half of candidates make it through this pre-clinical testing stage and these five to 10 remaining compounds are now ready to be tested in humans for the first time. In the UK, approval by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) is required before any testing in humans can occur. The company will put in a clinical trial application (CTA), which will be reviewed by medical and scientific experts, who will decide whether or not sufficient preliminary research has been conducted to allow testing in humans to go ahead.

Each year sees a couple of dozen new drugs licensed for use, but in their wake there will be tens of thousands of candidate drugs that fell by the wayside. The research and development journey of those new drugs that make it to market will have taken around 12 years and cost around £1.15bn.

Understanding the cause of an illness can often help a doctor to bring a patient back to good health or to suggest ways to prevent the illness from recurring or affecting other people. Illness may he caused by an accident, which physically affects part of the body, or it may be brought about by tiny organisms such as bacteria and viruses. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, while antiviral drugs attack viruses. In both cases, some disease-causing organisms are resistant to drug therapy. Occasionally, the cells of the body seem to act in destructive ways for no obvious reason. This is what happens in some forms of cancer. However, researchers are finding new ways to combat disease all the time.

A complex illness contains two or more elements of illness, causal illness, injury illness and blockage illness, with a single cause. A complex illness requires a cure for each illness element.

For complex illnesses, the first cure is to address the cause.  The second cure is to heal the damage, the third to transform the negative attributes that resulted from illness and from healing. It is possible, sometimes necessary to work on elemental cures out of sequence, or at the same time. However, cures can seldom be completed out of sequence, because the prior illness is a cause, and the illness will recur.

The hierarchy is also a hierarchy of life and of health. It is also useful to view the hierarchy of illness. An illness can exist in a single cell, the simplest life form. A single cell might have an illness with a single cause that causes an injury that is healed, but leaves a blockage resulting in congestion.

An illness might exist in a bodily tissue, independent of the cells comprising the tissue.  A tissue is a layer of life above individual cells.  A tissue might have an illness because that is not a cause of cellular illnesses that leads to tissue injury, which heals and leaves a tissue blockage, resulting in congestion in the tissue.  In the same manner, a limb, or an organ, or an organ system might have a simple or compound illness.

An illness can be based in an organ, an organ system, or in the body.  This is the common view of much of today’s medical practice. It is sometimes a useful view, sometimes not so useful. The illness of the body, like that of a cell, or that of a tissue might begin with a cause, or as an injury or a blockage, caused by an internal or external factor.

An illness might also arise in the mind, or the spirit, or even the community aspects of a life entity, from internal or external causes. An illness might result in damage to the mind, or to the spirit, or to the community aspects of the patient, which when healing is not perfect, results in a negative attribute – leading to congestion, and possibly even a new illness.

Anaesthesia prevents pain signals from being received by the brain, so that the pain is not felt by the patient. Hundreds of years ago there were few ways to relieve a patient’s pain during surgery. Alcohol might be used, but it was not very effective. It was not until the nineteenth century that anaesthetic drugs began to be widely used. The first operation to be performed using a general anaesthetic was by an American surgeon, in 1842.

Anaesthesia refers to the practice of blocking the feeling of pain to allow medical and surgical procedures to be undertaken without pain.

 An ancient Italian practice was to cover a patient’s head with a wooden bowl and beat on it repeatedly until the patient lost consciousness. Presumably this method resulted in a number of side-effects the patient would not have found beneficial.

Opium and alcohol were regularly used to produce insensibility, both of which also had a number of negative side effects and neither could dull the pain completely. Few operations were possible and speed was the determinant of a successful surgeon. Patients were often tied or held down and the abdomen, chest and skull were effectively inoperable. Surgery was a last, and extremely painful, resort.

On October 16, 1846, an American dentist, William Morton, proved to the world that ether causes complete insensibility to pain during an operation performed in front of a crowd of doctors and students at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Morton instructed the patient to inhale the ether vapour and, once the patient was suitably sedated, a tumour was removed from his neck. The patient felt no pain. This demonstration transformed medical practice.

Archaeologists have found skulls, dating from at least 10,000 years ago, that have holes drilled into them. Because bone has begun to grow around the holes, they were clearly made while the person was still alive. It is believed that this technique, called trepanning, was the first operation. It was probably done to relieve headaches or to let out evil spirits that were thought to be trapped inside the patient’s head.

The history of dental and surgical procedures reaches back to the Neolithic and pre-Classical ages. The first evidence of a surgical procedure is that of trephining, or cutting a small hole in the head. This procedure was practiced as early as 3000 BC and continued through the middle Ages and even into the Renaissance.  The initial purpose of trephining in ancient cultures is unknown; although some hypothesize it may have been used to rid the body of spirits. The practice was widespread throughout Europe, Africa, and South America. Evidence of healed skulls suggests some patients survived the procedure. Trephining continued in Ancient Egypt as a method of treating migraines. In South America, ancient Mayans practiced dental surgery by filling cavities with precious stones including jadeite, turquoise, quartz, and hematite, among others. It is supposed that these procedures were for ritual or religious purposes, rather than health or cosmetic reasons.

Ancient Greeks also performed some surgical procedures including setting broken bones, bloodletting, draining lungs of patients with pneumonia, and amputations. The Greeks had new, iron tools at their disposal, yet the risk of infection or death was still high. Hippocrates’ theory of four humors influenced medicine for hundreds of years. He claimed that the humors (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood which coincided with the elements earth, fire, water, and air, respectively) exist in the body, and bloodletting (or the draining of blood), among other procedures, balanced them. Ancient Roman physician Galen was heavily influenced by the Greeks. He served for three years as doctor to Roman gladiators and as the Emperor’s surgeon, gaining hands-on surgical experience. Romans continued with trephining, amputations, and eye surgery. Beginning in 900 AD, Al-Zahrawi, a famous Islamic surgeon, wrote books focused on orthopedics, military surgery, and ear, nose, and throat surgery, further influencing Islamic and Western medical practitioners.

Hippocrates is often described as “the father of modern medicine”. He was a Greek doctor, living in the fourth and fifth centuries BC , who taught that a doctor’s first duty is to his or her patient and that the aim must at all times be to try to do good rather than harm. When they qualify, many modern doctors take the Hippocratic Oath, promising to follow these principles throughout their careers.

Hippocrates was born around 460 BC on the island of Kos, Greece. He became known as the founder of medicine and was regarded as the greatest physician of his time.

He based his medical practice on observations and on the study of the human body. He held the belief that illness had a physical and a rational explanation. He rejected the views of his time that considered illness to be caused by superstitions and by possession of evil spirits and disfavor of the gods.

Hippocrates teaching Hippocrates held the belief that the body must be treated as a whole and not just a series of parts. He accurately described disease symptoms and was the first physician to accurately describe the symptoms of pneumonia, as well as epilepsy in children. He believed in the natural healing process of rest, a good diet, fresh air and cleanliness. He noted that there were individual differences in the severity of disease symptoms and that some individuals were better able to cope with their disease and illness than others. He was also the first physician that held the belief that thoughts, ideas, and feelings come from the brain and not the heart as others of his time believed.

Hippocrates traveled throughout Greece practicing his medicine. He founded a medical school on the island of Kos, Greece and began teaching his ideas. He soon developed an Oath of Medical Ethics for physicians to follow. This Oath is taken by physicians today as they begin their medical practice. He died in 377 BC. Today Hippocrates is known as the “Father of Medicine”.

Machinery has made it possible for the work of a dozen farm workers to be done twice as quickly by one worker. There are fewer people working on the land in developed countries than ever before. Machinery exacts a price from the environment as well, as hedges and ditches are removed to allow larger machines to work the enormous fields. Crops have been bred for the machine age, too. They need to ripen together, not over a period of time, so that machinery can harvest them in one operation.

Farm machinery, mechanical devices, including tractors and implements, used in farming to save labour. Farm machines include a great variety of devices with a wide range of complexity: from simple hand-held implements used since prehistoric times to the complex harvesters of modern mechanized agriculture.

The operations of farming for which machines are used are diverse. For crop production they include handling of residues from previous crops; primary and secondary tillage of the soil; fertilizer distribution and application; seeding, planting, and transplanting; cultivation; pest control; harvesting; transportation; storage; premarketing processing; drainage; irrigation and erosion control; and water conservation. Livestock production, which not so long ago depended primarily on the pitchfork and scoop shovel, now uses many complicated and highly sophisticated machines for handling water, feed, bedding, and manure, as well as for the many special operations involved in producing milk and eggs.

In the early 19th century, animals were the chief source of power in farming. Later in the century, steam power gained in importance. During World War gasoline- (petrol-) powered tractors became common, and diesel engines later became prevalent. In the developed countries, the number of farm workers has steadily declined in the 20th century, while farm production has increased because of the use of machinery.

Fishing in the open seas is expensive, dangerous and increasingly difficult as some fish stocks diminish. Fish farming involves using lakes, rivers and netted-off coastal areas to raise fish that can be harvested more easily. Freshwater fish and shellfish have been most success-fully farmed in this way. Many deep-sea fish require conditions that are impossible to recreate in managed waters.

Fish farming involves raising fish commercially in tanks or enclosures such as fish ponds, usually for food. It is the principal form of aquaculture, while other methods may fall under mariculture. A facility that releases juvenile fish into the wild for recreational fishing or supplement a species' natural numbers is generally referred to as a fish hatchery. Worldwide, the most important fish species produced in fish farming are carp, tilapia, salmon, and catfish.

Demand is increasing for fish and fish protein, which has resulted in widespread overfishing in wild fisheries. China provides 62% of the world's farmed fish. As of 2016, more than 50% of seafood was produced by aquaculture.

Farming carnivorous fish, such as salmon, does not always reduce pressure on wild fisheries. Carnivorous farmed fish are usually fed fishmeal and fish oil extracted from wild forage fish. The 2008 global returns for fish farming recorded by the totaled 33.8 million tons worth about $US 60 billion.

Livestock is farmed chiefly to supply foods such as meat, eggs and milk, but also for leather, fur and wool. Animal by-products may also include glue, gelatin and fertilizer.

The term “livestock” refers to any domesticated, land-living animal that is raised to provide resources like meat, milk, eggs, and feathers, or to provide services like transportation or cultivation assistance. Buffalo, cows, ducks, goats, and horses are just a few examples of animals that fall into this broad category.

Livestock are raised around the globe, both on small scales—generally for subsistence or local trade—and in massive industrial operations supplying international markets. The sheer mass of these animals is hard to fathom: The combined weight of cattle, chickens, and pigs exceeds the weight of all wild animals and humans combined.

22.8 billion Chickens

Chickens are far and away the most numerous type of livestock on the planet. There are about 135 chickens for every cow—and three for every human.

Wild chickens are believed to have originated in northern China, and were eventually domesticated in Southeast Asia more than 5,000 years ago. China remains the world's leading producer of chickens, claiming over 20 percent of the global chicken supply. However, the birds are now raised on every continent except Antarctica, where they are banned. Globally, chicken consumption is on the rise, outpacing the growth in consumption of other meats, like beef or pork. But growing demand for eggs has also contributed to chickens' dominance.

1.5 billion Cattle

Cattle are the second most common livestock animal. Their domestication is thought to have occurred roughly 10,500 years ago, in what is now considered the Middle East.

Today, these animals are especially prevalent in South America, where they're primarily raised for meat, and in India, where the animals are conversely valued for the dairy products they produce. Cows are revered in Hinduism, India's majority religion, and most Indian states have regulation prohibiting, or at least regulating, the slaughter of cattle.

1.2 billion Sheep

Sheep are believed to be one of the first domesticated animals, and are common throughout the Old World. They're especially prevalent in northeastern China, Central Asia, and North Africa, but are also raised intensively in New Zealand and Australia.

Although New Zealand is famous for having more resident sheep than people (with roughly six sheep for every person), it actually ranks third in terms of sheep per capita. Mongolia has a 10:1 ratio of sheep to humans, while the Falkland Islands, a British territory off the eastern coast of Argentina, boast more than 200 sheep per capita.

967 million pigs 

The sixth most common livestock animal is the humble pig, which is descended from the significantly more formidable wild boar. Pig production is localized to a few high-intensity areas in China, northern Europe, and the American Midwest. Nearly half of the world's pigs are raised in China alone.

Excluding areas where pork is not customarily consumed—including North Africa, the Middle East, and other predominately Muslim regions—pig production is on the rise.

From 1960 to 2010, the number of pigs on the planet grew by 250 percent, while the size of individual pigs nearly doubled. This growth is attributed to increased demand for animal protein in the regions where pigs are already consumed.

In Europe in the Middle Ages, large fields were often divided into strips, with individuals farming their strip as intensively as possible. Since little was under-stood about the nutrients that plants need and the use of fertilizers, the soil in these strips soon became exhausted, with poorer and poorer yields resulting. The Agricultural Revolution was a change in farming practice that took place gradually during the eighteenth century. The technique of resting ground for a year (leaving it fallow) and rotating crops, so that the same crop was not grown year after year on the same plot, was tested and found to improve harvests. A two-year rotation and later three- and four-year rotations came to be widely practiced.

The Agricultural Revolution was a major event in world history and had a profound effect on populations throughout Europe and other historical events.  For example, many historians consider the Agricultural Revolution to be a major cause of the Industrial Revolution, especially in terms of when and how it began in Britain.  For example, the Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 18th century due in part to an increase in food production, which was the key outcome of the Agricultural Revolution.  As such, the Agricultural Revolution is considered to have begun in the 17th century and continued throughout the centuries that followed, alongside the Industrial Revolution.

In the centuries before the start of the Agricultural Revolution, European farmers practised a form of farming in which they planted the same crop in the same field every year.  This would cause them to have to not plant anything in the field every few years in order to avoid destroying the quality of the soil.  However, Charles Townshend, a British statesman, identified a way to improve farming practises and thus produce more food.  In the 1730s, he discovered that by growing different types of crops in the fields year after year, British farmers did not have to leave a field for a growing season.  For example, he argued that in one year the farmers should grow a cereal grain such as whet or barley and in a following year they should grow a vegetable crop such as turnips.  By doing so, a farmer could grow food in a field every year without diminishing the ability of the soil.  For his discovery, he became known as ‘Turnip Townshend’.  In general, this allowed British farmers to grow more food, which in turn helped lead to an increase in the population of British citizens.  The increased population was important to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution because it created a large workforce for the factories and mines that would be common during the time.

A key aspect of the Industrial Revolution was the invention of different types of machines, many of which were used in farming and agriculture.  For example, Jethro Tull is famous for his invention of the seed drill which had a profound effect on the Agricultural Revolution and, in turn, the Industrial Revolution.  Tull worked on his father’s farm in England and noticed that some of the traditional farming practices were very inefficient.  For example, he was particularly concerned with how seeds were drilled into the soil by hand, which was very slow and required a lot of labor on the part of farmers. As a result, Tull invented a seed drill with a rotating cylinder to drill the seeds into the soil. This made the planting process much quicker.  As well, the seed drill allowed crops to be planted in straight rows, which allowed the farmers to use less seeds while making weeding of the crops easier and more efficient.

Not all crops are grown for human or animal food. Cotton, flax and jute are grown to be made into fabric. Esparto grass may be cultivated for the manufacture of rope and paper. Tobacco is grown for smoking, while bamboo canes have hundreds of varied uses.

Other non-food crops, such as lavender, are grown for the perfume and cosmetics industries.

Castor: In 1960s, more than 20,000 acres were grown around Lubbock and processed in oil mills. Today there is no commercial production due to cheaper imports but there are some reports of 10 acres for planting seed. Castor produces a high quality oil used in industrial equipment, paints, aircraft and space lubricants, and other uses; less than 1% is fed to youth as a laxative. Seed contains ricinine which is highly toxic if eaten. Castor is now on the Homeland Security biohazard list after years of open production in the U.S.

Christmas trees: Planted on 1,500 acres, 90% are east of I-35 and on sandy soils; 70% are Virginia pine, 20% Afghan pine, and 5% Layland cypress. Seedlings planted, frequently drip irrigated to assure summer growth; requires good weed control to get bottom limb growth. Pruning and shaping essential for market-ability. Pines may be sprayed with a dye for more intense green coloration. Usually harvested after 5 years, with gross sales of $10,000 per harvested acre (average of $2,000 per planted acre if sequential plantings). No major disease problems but pine tip moth requires treatment every year and aphids in some years. Most tree farms are near metro centers for seasonal marketing and family experiences.

Flax: No flax is raised today but prior to 1970, flax was grown on 40,000 acres in South Texas. Winter-hardy varieties were short-strawed to maximize seed yields for production of linseed oil, an unsaturated oil used in paints. Flax, a winter annual, was cultured similar to small grains, seed was sold through a cooperative at Karnes City and shipped north. Some flax straw was baled for paper but the last unsold large supply mysteriously caught fire. Fiber varieties are typically taller but not raised in Texas.

Guayule: This North American crop was grown on 30,000 acres during World War II to supply natural rubber. This slow growing perennial does well in desert areas. Small experimental/observation plots with Firestone near Fort Stockton. In AZ, Yulex, Inc. has planted 500 acres in a quest to produce a natural latex for high-end medical and surgical products with non-allergenic properties. Yields average 1,000 pounds of guayule rubber per acre worth 40 cents per pound. In AZ, a pilot plant is designed to handle 750 tons of biomass in anticipation of producing natural latex; if successful, then plans to expand production to NM and TX.

Hemp/Marijuana: Originally an important cordage crop, raised for fiber in early days for burlap bags used for shipping. Now grown for seed and leaves for narcotic resin from Cannabis in small hidden plots of 0.1 to 0.5 acres in secluded areas along creek banks. Larger plots (5 acres or more) may be hidden if by tall crops such as forests or corn. While no firm statistics are available on the acreage producers, estimates range from 1,000 to 2,800 acres, with 80% of the production east of I-35 and remainder within 80 miles of metro centers, such as Austin. The real weeds are controlled by hand hoeing and selective herbicides but no pesticides are labeled. Diseases include Fusarium wilt and bacterial leaf diseases. In many states “medicinal hemp” sales exceed those of any other crop.

Kenaf: A new alterative crop was evaluated in LRGV without economic success. Some acres still maintained for seed production. Some production in Mississippi for newspaper fiber. Crop is desiccated by frost; chopped material stored in modules before processing. Few pests but potential concerns for white fly, powdery mildew, leaf spot, cotton root rot, and leaf deformation.

Lesquerella: A perennial shrub-like plant common in the desert, selected and cultivated for production of high quality industrial oil, similar to castor, with on-going research at Pecos, TX and AZ. No commercial production in Texas but 50 acres are planted for research in cooperation with AZ. Irrigated production usually yields 1,800 pounds of seed per acre; would require a price of 15 to 20 cents/pound to be profitable. Produces best if fall-planted, irrigated, and level ground for combine harvesting. Meal may be fed to livestock after oil is extracted.

Although there are thousands of edible plant species, only a relatively small number have been domesticated, i.e. converted to widespread usage by humans. Three crops—wheat, corn, and rice—provide nearly 60 percent of total plant calories that humans consume. Other major crops include potatoes, soybeans, cassava, sorghum, and legumes. The three top crops are grown worldwide, though certain regions are known for specific crops. For example, the United States supplies almost half of the world’s 800 million tons of corn annually, followed by China, Brazil, and Mexico. China, India, and the U.S. are the largest wheat producers, and almost 95 percent of all rice is grown in Asia. And, while 16 percent of total wheat production reaches the world’s markets, rice is primarily consumed where it is grown and only 5 percent makes it to the world market.

Wheat is one of the oldest cultivated crops, beginning around 10,000 years ago in the area known today as the “Fertile Crescent” between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Evidence suggests that wheat was used for making bread in Egypt by 5000 BC and its cultivation had spread to Europe by 4000 BC. Although the U.S. is the third largest wheat producer in the world, large-scale cultivation did not begin until the late 1800s when European settlement moved into the central plains. Today, approximately 700 million tons of wheat are grown annually around the world.

Rice continues to be a critical staple for nearly half of the world’s population, and for whom rice cultivation is the sole or primary source of food. Although rice is a good carbohydrate source, it does not provide adequate nutrition—an issue of increasing concern in the developing world where almost three billion people obtain most of their daily nutrients from rice. These populations can suffer from micronutrient deficiencies, most notably a lack of vitamin A.

Corn (or maize) is thought to be a domesticated version of the wild cereal grass teosinte, and was likely cultivated between three and four thousand years ago in Mesoamerica. It is still one of the most common crops grown in the Americas. Only about one percent of the corn that is grown is eaten as whole or processed grain (sweet corn, corn chips, or tamales); more than 50 percent is used as animal feed—primarily for cattle, hogs, and chickens—and the remainder is consumed either as starch or in the form of corn sweeteners. More recently, an increasing amount of land area has been dedicated to growing corn due to the demand for ethanol, a corn-based fuel. In 2007, ethanol production became the second largest use of corn grown in the U.S. The sustainability of this use is controversial.

Arable farming is the growing and harvesting of crops, particularly where the ground is ploughed between harvests, as the term comes from the Latin word for ploughing. Arable farming is of enormous importance to the world's population, since most of us rely on grains or vegetables for our staple foods.

Arable farming means growing crops in fields, which have usually been ploughed before planting. Arable crops are generally annual – they need to be replanted each year.

Land is cultivated (prepared by ploughing) in autumn or spring, and the crop is planted. It grows through the spring and summer, and is harvested in late summer or autumn. The land is then cultivated again for another crop or returned to pasture for one or more years.

Cereal farming requires vast cultivable expanses, a significant labour force and appropriate tools. This method of farming is nonetheless similar to that of market gardening. Ploughing, sowing, fertilising, irrigating and treating are steps that have been followed for thousands of years to ensure an adequate yield and an abundant harvest. Arable farming in industrialised countries now relies on a variety of specialist mechanical devices.

From sowing to harvesting, intensive cereal farming follows a similar chain of events to market gardening, only on a larger scale. Current cereal crops are mostly grown in open fields, whereas tubers, such as potatoes, can also be grown in greenhouses. Both practices require a lot of space and tools, as well as a sizeable workforce. A feature of cereal farming is that it varies according to specific type of soil and way of farming each cereal needs.

The first stage in cereal and tuber cultivation is ploughing. This involves turning the soil over to aerate it, removing residue from former crops and digging furrows. With intensive farming, chemical fertilizers are then applied to the newly ploughed soil, whereas extensive farming relies on the soil’s natural resources and alternates crops on a yearly basis.

Early missionaries were the first to grow wheat and oats in New Zealand. In the first half of the 19th century some North Island M?ori communities grew wheat, which they sold to settlers, exported to Sydney, or used themselves.

New Zealand Company settlements, such as Wellington, Nelson and Whanganui, were intended to be based on arable production rather than animal farming. However, at that stage there was a limited export market for crops, but a huge market for animal products – initially for wool and later for meat and dairy production. Cropping remained important in some areas, particularly the Canterbury Plains and North Otago, where summer conditions were ideal for maturing grain crops.