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          The oldest university in the Indian subcontinent was Takshasila, or Taxila. It was the capital of the Budhhist kingdom of Gandhara and was located west of Rawalpindi in what is now Pakistan. The University of Taxila was a great centre of learning in the ancient world. Scholars came from all over the world to study here.

          It was famous for its schools of Brahminical studies, Buddhist philosophy, medicine, sciences and arts. Great scholars like Panini, Charaka, and Kautilya are believed to have taught there. Many of its students became great leaders, thinkers and scientists. The university came under Persian rule, and in 326 BC, it was surrendered to Alexander the Great. King Ashoka made it an important Buddhist centre in BC 261. It was destroyed by the Huns in the 5th century AD.

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          You must have read tales known as the Jataka Tales. The Jatakas are the tales about the former lives of the Buddha. Before he attained enlightenment, Buddha had been born as Bodhisattva. It is said that he was born again and again 547 times, sometimes in a human form, and sometimes as a bird or beast or fish.

          The Jataka deals with these lives of Buddha. These tales always begin with an incident in the life of the Buddha, usually a sermon he is giving, which he illustrates with a story from one of his previous lives. The Jatakas are primarily moral tales, illustrating the wisdom and goodness of the Bodhisattva figure.

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          All religions have their sacred scriptures upon which their doctrines are founded. For example, Christianity has the Bible, Islam, the Koran, and Hinduism, the Vedas.

          The sacred scriptures of Buddhism are the Tripitakas. They are written in the Pali script, and are made up of three parts, which are referred to as ‘baskets’. In fact, the very word ‘Tripitakas’ means ‘three baskets.’ One part is called the Abhidhamma Pitaka or the Basket of Dharma. It explains the principles of Buddhism. Another part is called Vinaya Pitaka or the Basket of Discipline. It deals with the rules to be observed by the monks. The largest and most important part is the Sutta Pitaka, or the Basket of Stories. It consists of the sermons and sayings of Lord Buddha. The number of volumes in the Tripitaka, which were compiled at various times differs, and is without parallel in any other religion.

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          Lord Buddha did not want his followers to worship his image, and so, for a long time, no figures of Buddha were drawn or carved.

          The earliest representation of Buddha was made through the stupas or mounds erected on the relics of Buddha. These mounds had external decorations on them, tracing various events in the life of Buddha. Symbols like a foot, sacred tree, holy seat or altar were also widely used to represent Buddha. The first Buddha statues were carved in stone in Mathura, near Delhi. The noteworthy characteristics of the Buddha statues were that the figures were always standing free or seated in the regular cross-legged religious posture.

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          The Buddhists began the practice of  creating temples by hollowing out rock faces. The monks needed places where they could pray and hold discussions in peace, and caves were ideal for this purpose. Gradually, these caves became temples or monasteries where the monks lived.

          The earliest Buddhist cave temple was found in Maharashtra, at Bhaja near Pune. It is more than 2000 years old. Instead of images, the presence of Buddha was indicated only by a stupa or mound in the early cave temples. In the later cave temples though, like the ones at Ajanta, many images of Buddha can be seen. The distinguishing feature of all the temples is a huge arched window that is found over the main entrance. The Ellora Caves near Aurangabad, and the Elephanta Caves near Mumbai, are other famous cave temples of this era.

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        Vajrayana Buddhism emerged in Tibet about the 7th century AD. Its prominent symbol is the ‘Vajra’ which means a diamond, or thunder bolt. It was the latest phase in the development and evolution of Buddhism.

        Vajrayana’s main claim is that it enables a person to reach Nirvana or freedom from suffering in a single lifetime, rather than passing through countless lives before achieving salvation. Vajrayana promises the ‘fast path’ to Buddhahood-a path that, in some Vajrayana traditions, brings magical powers.

        Vajrayana Buddhism lays great emphasis on mantras or incantations, mudras or hand gestures, and mandalas or diagrams of deities and other cosmic forces. It also involves for the first time, worship of female deities, of which the most important of all is Tara.

        Vajrayana Buddhism developed out of Mahayana teachings in Northwest India. It is also known as Tantric Buddhism, due to its reliance on sacred texts called tantras.

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          Buddhism does not believe in the existence of gods, in elaborate rituals, in the caste system, or in the worship of images. It teaches that everyone is equal, that nothing lasts forever, and that nothing happens by chance. Its aim is to attain ‘Nirvana’, which is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of life, death and rebirth.

          Buddhism is divided into two major sects - Hinayana and Mahayana. The Hinayana sect regarded Buddha as a great teacher, not a god.

          They believed that the only way to attain Nirvana was by leading a monastic life, and abandoning all worldly pleasures. The Mahayana sect worshipped Buddha as God. They believed that enlightenment would come to all those who followed the path of righteousness, irrespective of their status in society. The Mahayana Buddhists also believed that love and compassion are as important as knowledge. Mahayana Buddhism became very popular in India, China, Tibet, Japan and Central Asia. Hinayana Buddhism spread more in Burma, Sri Lanka and the countries of South East Asia.

 

          The teachings of Buddha had not been written down during his lifetime. So, six months after he died, or attained Nirvana, the first Great Buddhist Council was held at Rajgir, under the patronage of King Ajatashatru. Its objective was to preserve Buddha’s sayings, and to lay down monastic discipline or rules. In the centuries that followed, four Buddhist councils were held to discuss Buddha’s teachings. It was during the fourth council that the division of Buddhism into two sects was finally accepted.

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          Buddha is one of the greatest philosophers of India. He was a prince and his original name was Siddhartha. Siddhartha spent his boyhood at Kapilavastu and its vicinity.

          At the age of twenty-nine, Siddhartha suddenly abandoned his home, his wife and child to devote himself entirely too spiritual pursuits and yogic practices. Do you know why? One day, Siddhartha left the walled enclosure of the palace and roamed about in the town along with his servant, to see how the people were getting on. The sight of a weak old man, a sick man, a corpse and a monk finally induced Siddhartha to renounce the world.

          Siddhartha realized that worldly life with all its luxuries was worthless, and that the pleasure obtained from worldly things was fleeting. At the same time, he noticed that the monk looked serene and peaceful, and decided that he too, would find a way to get relief from the endless cycle of birth, suffering and death.

          Siddhartha left his palace and family, and wandered for many years in search of enlightenment. Finally, as he sat under a Peepul tree, he freed himself of all attachments and discovered the truth, and the secret of happiness. He became Buddha or ‘the Enlightened One’. According to Buddha, people can get free of the cycle of birth, suffering and death by leading a balanced life. He stressed the importance of being good, of learning not to care about worldly things, and of meditation. Buddha had many followers in his lifetime, and after his death, Buddhism, the religion he founded, spread throughout India and other parts of Asia.

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        It was Mahavira who gave Jainism the proper form of a religion. He is also considered as the 24th and last ‘Tirthankara’. In Jainism, ‘Tirthankara’ is a great soul who becomes the bridge to enlightenment.

        Mahavira was born in Kundagrama, near Vaishali in Bihar, in 599 BC.

        Mahavira was a prince, and his name was Vardhamana. He was a very brave child who once mounted a charging elephant! At the age of thirty, Mahavira renounced his kingdom, and family.

        It is believed that Mahavira did not consume even water, for two days. He pulled out his hair, and wore only a piece of cloth. Later, he gave half of that garment to a beggar. After a little over a year, he gave up clothes altogether. Mahavira’s teachings are full of universal compassion. He taught about the internal beauty and harmony of the soul. Mahavira preached that right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct together would lead one towards liberation.

        Mahavira himself is also called ‘Jina’, which means conqueror, for he was a spiritual conqueror.

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        The Nandas have a special place in Indian history as the first empire builders of India. They inherited the large kingdom of Magadha, and wished to extend it to even more distant frontiers. The first Nanda ruler was Mahapadma, and the last was Dhana Nanda. At the time of Dhana Nanda, the Nandas had an army consisting of 80,000 cavalry, 2,00,000 infantry, 8,000 armed chariots, and 6,000 war elephants!

          The Nandas were very wealthy, and they got their wealth through the taxes they collected. They also built canals and carried out irrigation projects. They were not popular rulers, but their powerful army was famous. In fact, many historians hold the view that Alexander the Great confined himself to the plains of Punjab for fear of the mighty Nandas!

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          Have you heard the story of how the Greeks won a battle against the kingdom of Troy by building a huge wooden horse? The horse was so big that Greek soldiers could hide inside it. The Greeks left the horse outside the gates of Troy, and pretended to leave. When the Trojans saw the horse, they took it inside their city, for it was so magnificent. At night, while the Trojans slept, the Greek soldiers came out of the horse and destroyed Troy. Did you know that a similar thing happened in India too? Pradyota, king of Avanti, one of the most prosperous states in the north, wanted to capture the king of Vatsa, Udayana. Therefore, he built a huge wooden elephant, hid his soldiers inside it, and left the elephant in the forest. Udayana was very fond of elephants, and when he heard that there was a huge elephant in the forest, he went in search of it. He was then captured by Pradyota’s soldiers, who emerged from the elephant and brought to Avanti. The story has a happy ending though. Pradyota’s daughter fell in love with Udayana, and helped him to escape. They married and she lived happily as his queen!

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          Bimbisara was a king of Magadha. His capital was at Rajgir. Bimbisara became king at the age of fifteen, and reigned for fifty-two years, until his kingdom was taken over by his son Ajatashatru. It is said that he had 500 wives, although we know about only four of them!

          Bimbisara’s expansion of his kingdom, especially his annexation of the kingdom of Anga to the east, is considered to have laid the foundation for the later expansion of the Mauryan Empire. He is also known for his cultural achievements, and was a great friend and protector of the Buddha. The king’s support greatly helped the growth of Buddhism in India.

          Legends tell us that Bimbisara’s son Ajatashatru, who imprisoned the king, is said to have starved him to death.

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          Prehistoric ‘Megalithic’ or large stone graves are found in great numbers in south India, especially in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. As you know, the pyramids are massive monuments built over a tomb that contained all the objects which would be useful for a dead person in his afterlife.

          Similarly, megaliths were large stone constructions built over a tomb. Rectangular chambers made of large stone slabs are very common. They also contained jewellery, axes, arrowheads and household articles for the afterlife. In this respect, they are similar to the pyramids of Egypt. There were also urn burials, in which the bones of the dead person were put in a pot or urn and then buried in a pit.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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