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             Before Babur established the Mughal rule, various Rajput kings fought for power against Ibrahim Lodi. Lodi’s Afghan chiefs too were a part of this power struggle.

           Around the same time, Babur raided India from Kabul several times, in search of wealth. It was Daulat Khan Lodi, the Afghan ruler of Punjab, and Rana Sanga, the Rajput ruler of Mewar, who sought Babur’s help to overthrow Ibrahim Lodi. Little did they know that Babur would establish his own kingdom in India, when they invited him.

             It started in 1525; Babur began his conquest in Delhi. In fact, he conquered most of north India in three major battles and some minor ones. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, and after a year, Rana Sanga was overthrown at Khanva near Agra. Rana Sanga could not withstand Babur’s army though he was backed by many Rajput rulers and some Afghan chiefs.

             In a battle that was fought on the banks of river Ghagra, Babur defeated Nusrat Shah of Bengal and other Afghan chiefs; Nusrat Shah had teamed up with Mahmud Lodi, Ibrahim’s brother. This happened in 1529 and Babur died a year later.

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            The kings and nobles of the Vijayanagara Empire lived in royal splendour. Abdur Razzaq, the Persian ambassador to Vijayanagara, notes that the king’s palace had several cells filled with gold.

            Royal marriages were elegant displays of royal wealth. When King Deva Raya I’s daughter was married off to Firuz Shah Bahmani, the road from the city gate to the palace that spans over ten kilometres was draped with gold, velvet and satin cloth.

            Vijayanagara city was 96 kilometres in circumference; it had seven fortresses, four bazaars, and numerous streams and canals made of polished stone. Accounts of a traveller suggest that it was larger than Rome. Art and literature flourished in the wealthy empire; however, common people lived in poor conditions. Much of the riches of the Vijayanagara Empire was destroyed by wars.

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            Vijayanagara Empire reached the zenith of its power under King Krishnadeva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty. He was undoubtedly the greatest of the Vijayanagara kings.

           In addition to the already established presence in the south, he expanded his kingdom to include territories in the northern Deccan that were formerly under the Sultanate, and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga.

           Krishnadeva Raya was known as Andhra Bhoja as he was a great patron of the arts and literature. He was an author himself, who wrote both in Telugu and Sanskrit; he wrote Amuktamalyada (Telugu) and Jambavati Kalyanam (Sanskrit). His court was adorned by a group of eight celebrated poets known as Ashtadiggajas among whom, Allasani Peddana was the greatest.

           Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the reign of Krishnadeva Raya. He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and Vitthalaswamy at his capital.

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             Also known as lmmadi Deva Raya, Deva Raya II who ruled the Vijayanagara Empire was one of the greatest rulers of the Indian subcontinent. From his inscriptions, it is known that he enjoyed the title ‘Gajabetegara’, the elephant hunter.

            It was Deva Raya II who began the practice of employing Muslims in the army. He is known for subduing Quilon. He is also the author of two Sanskrit works- Mahanataka Sudhanidhi, and a commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana. Dindima was his court poet.

           The Vijayanagara Empire was engulfed in a bubble of confusion after the death of Deva Raya II. The rule of primogeniture, that is, the right of succession of the firstborn child was not established at the time of his death. This led to a series of civil wars among the contenders. The throne was finally usurped by the king’s minister Saluva Narsimha following which, the Saluva dynasty was established.

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            Harihara and Bukka were ministers of the ruler of Kampili in Karnataka. When Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq invaded Kampili, he captured them. However, they were sent back to Karnataka in an attempt to suppress the revolts that followed the invasion.

           Harihara and Bukka went back to build a new empire after defeating the Sultan. To commemorate their grand victory against the Sultan of Delhi, the capital of the newly formed kingdom was named Vijayanagara, meaning the city of victory. Later, the empire came to be known by this name.

           Harihara was the first to rule the kingdom, and Bukka succeeded his brother to the throne in 1336. He built the capital city of Vijayanagara, and by 1346, the whole of the Hoysala kingdom came under the rulers of Vijayanagara.

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           The Bahmani architecture is a blend of Iranian and Indian elements. They built many mosques, forts and tombs. In 1367, Muhammad Shah built the Jami Masjid at Gulbarga. Forts were built at Daulatabad, Narnala, Bidar, Warangal, Golconda, Mudgal and Raichur.

          The Daulatabad fort stands on an isolated rock. It is 186 metres high and the outer wall is four and a half kilometres in circumference, surrounded by a moat. The fort has three inner walls, with gateways and towers. The walls of the Bidar fort is fifteen and a half metres high, five kilometres in circumference, and is surrounded by a triple ditch cut out of rock.

          There are a series of royal tombs in Gulbarga. The tomb of Firuz Shah and his family holds a special place among them; it measures 48 metres by 24 metres and has shining plaster and painted designs inside the wall.

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           Though the Bahmani kingdom disintegrated after Emperor Krishnadeva Raya’s invasion, it gave birth to five smaller kingdoms- Bijapur, Ahmednagar, Berar, Golconda and Bidar.

           Yusuf Adil Shah founded the state of Bijapur in 1489 AD. Ibrahim Adil Shah, known for replacing Persian by Hindvi (Dakhini Urdu) as the official language is their best-known ruler. In 1686, Aurangzeb annexed Bijapur.

           In 1490, Malik Ahmad founded the kingdom of Ahmednagar. Within nine years, he annexed Daulatabad. He was succeeded by his son Burhan-i-Nizam Shah in 1508. The Mughals annexed the kingdom of Ahmednagar in 1636. Qutb Shah, a Turkish officer began the rule of the Qutb Shahi dynasty in Golconda. This happened in 1518 and a century and a half later, the kingdom of Golconda was annexed by the Mughals in 1687.

           The kingdom of Bidar was founded in 1526 under the Barid Shahi dynasty. It was annexed between 1619 and 1620 by Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur. Berar, founded in 1490, was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574.

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           The roots of the Bahmani kingdom can be traced back to a revolt led by Zafar Khan. Zafar Khan revolted against Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq of the Delhi Sultanate to establish South India’s first independent Islamic kingdom.

           The Bahmani capital was shifted from Hasanabad (Gulbarga) to Muhammadabad (Bidar). The former served as the capital from 1347 to 1425. The kingdom reached the peak of its power and glory during the rule of Mahmud Gawan. However, the Bahmani kingdom collapsed after it was attacked by Emperor Krishnadeva Raya of the Vijayanagara Empire.

          The Bahmanis put great emphasis on education. Urdu flourished during their reign; learning of Persian and Arabic were also encouraged. It was in 1518 that the Bahmani power split into five states - Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutb Shahi of Golconda (Hyderabad), Baridshahi of Bidar, lmadshahi of Berar and Adilshahi of Bijapur. These five states are collectively known as the “Deccan Sultanates” today.

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           In the 14th century AD, while Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq’s rule terrified north India, two independent kingdoms emerged in the Deccan- the Vijayanagara and the Bahmani.

          The Bahmani kingdom located to the north covered parts of present Maharashtra, north Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, while the Vijayanagara Empire covered Andhra and Karnataka in the south.

           The regions between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra, and the Krishna-Godavari delta were abundant sources of fertile land suited for agriculture. The newly emerged kingdoms fought many wars to gain control over these regions. Wars were waged to control the Konkan coastline that had some major ports necessary for trade. The Bahmani kingdom controlled Golconda. It had diamond mines because of which, the kings of Vijayanagara were eager to conquer Golconda.

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           Art, architecture, and religion flourished in South India during the reign of the Hoysalas. Hundreds of temples scattered across Karnataka, noted for their attention to exquisite detail and skilled craftsmanship are the living examples of the architectural excellence of the Hoysala period.

           Many temples including the Chennakeshava Temple, Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple, Somanathapura exhibit an amazing display of sculptural exuberance. In fact, the temple of Halebidu has been described as an important milestone in Indian architecture. It is a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site.

          The Hoysalas patronized Kannada scholars at a time when Sanskrit literature was popular. The Hoysala rulers used Kannada to state the terms of grants including information on the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses.

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           Regions now known as Karnataka were under the Hoysala Empire for almost four centuries, starting from the 10th century. The Hoysala rulers belonged to Malenadu, an elevated region in the Western Ghats. The Western Chalukya Empire and Kalachuris of Kalyani were constantly at war with each other. The Hoysalas made the best out of this situation by annexing the areas of present-day Karnataka and the fertile areas north of the Kaveri delta in present-day Tamil Nadu. By the 13th century, most of Karnataka, small parts of Tamil Nadu, and parts of western Andhra Pradesh and Telangana came under Hoysala rule.

           Vishnuvardhana was one of the prominent Hoysala kings. It was Vishnuvardhana who extended the Hoysala territory by fighting against the Cholas, Pandyas and other kingdoms. He also shifted his capital from Velapura to Dvarasamudra in Karnataka. The Hoysala territories were taken over by Vijayanagara after Alauddin Khalji’s general Malik Kafur destroyed Dvarasamudra.

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           Warangal’s history is entwined with the Kakatiyas, a South Indian dynasty that made Warangal its capital. The ancestry of the Kakatiyas can be traced back to a legendary chief named Durjaya. Though many other dynasties of Andhra Pradesh claim to be the descendants of Durjaya, nothing much is known about him. The Kakatiyas worshipped goddess “Kakati” and hence the name Kakatiya.

           Ganapati Deva, who assumed the title of ‘Rayagajekesari’ is the most famous Kakatiya king. He ruled for over 62 years, starting from 1199. He fought battles against the Yadavas, Cholas, Kalingas and the rulers of Karnataka and Gujarat. The famous Tikkana Somayaji was his court poet. He also patronized trade and commerce.

           The famous Rudrama devi who ruled as a queen for thirty years was Ganapati Deva’s daughter. The Kakatiyas declined after they were defeated by Malik Kafur, Alauddin Khalji’s general. This happened during the reign of Prataparudradeva following which, it merged with the Bahmani kingdom.

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           Before the Seunas or Yadavas came to power, they were feudatories either of the Chalukyas or of the Rashtrakutas. Around the mid-12th century, the power enjoyed by the Chalukyas waned. The Yadava king Bhillama V utilized this opportunity to declare independence.

           The Yadava kingdom was at its utmost splendour under Singhana II. With its capital at Devagiri, it was almost as large as that of the western Chalukyas, covering present-day west Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh.

           Singhana’s court had members from different areas of expertise including writers and scientists. The Yadava territory was annexed by the Sultan of Delhi around 1317.

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           The Delhi Sultanate expanded rapidly under Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq; constant wars soon emptied their treasury.

         The rulers of the Delhi Sultanate acquired power with sword and fire. So, there was no definite law of succession, and the raids from the Mongols were always a threat.

           The throne was sustained only by military strength and this became a source of political instability. Some of the nobles were more powerful than weak Sultans and local rulers continuously asserted their independence.

          It was the Iqtadari, Zamindari and Jagirdari systems that led to the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate. Peasants lived in a permanent state of poverty, while kings and nobles lived in great splendour. This alienated the common people from their rulers.

          The invasion by Babur brought down a Sultanate that was already in ruins.

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