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          The French Revolution (1789-93) is one of the greatest landmarks in the history of mankind. It ushered in a new era of liberty, equality and fraternity. The revolution started on 14 July, 1789 in France with the storming of the Bastille prison in Paris. It was a peoples’ revolution that started during the reign of King Louis XVI. It had its roots in the deep resentment of the masses over the rising prices as well as the brutal oppression and exploitation by the aristocrats and the ruling classes.

          King Louis XVI in 1789 tried to solve his financial problems by calling a meeting of the Estates General, the French parliament. When this almost forgotten body met on 5 May 1789 for the first time in 175 years, the third estate (representatives of people) defied the nobles and clergy and declared them as the National Assembly. On 20 June 1789 they took an oath not to disperse until they had given France a constitution which would defend the middle class and peasants against the feudal aristocracy.

 

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          The word Buddha literally means ‘The Enlightened One’. This was the title given to Siddhartha Gautama. He became the founder of the religion called Buddhism.

          Buddha was born as a prince in the 6th century B.C. in a warrior community of Nepal called ‘Sakyas’. Although brought up in great luxury, he did not show any attachment to the material delights. Even when young, he had a sensitive and philosophical temperament. Though he had everything necessary for worldly pleasures, he was somehow dissatisfied.

          One day Siddhartha went out of his palace grounds on his chariot to get a glimpse of the town. On his way he saw three, sights which he had never seen before: a sick man, an old man and a dead man. These had a deep impact on his mind and made him sad and thoughtful. He could sense the eternal truths of life and realized that life was full of sorrows and suffering. He wondered if sickness, old age and death ultimately grab everyone’s life then what was the goal of life and how men could best use the comparatively short lives they had on this earth. These questions kept on hunting his mind.

          One night Siddhartha left his palace in the pursuit of his goal. He was then 29 years old, married and father to a son. He left behind his wife and infant son in the palace. He spent several years studying under various teachers, but none could impart him the wisdom he was searching for. Finally, travelling from one place to another he reached a place in North India, now called Bodh Gaya. There he sat for many days under a tree in deep meditation, until suddenly one morning he had a wonderful experience of a starting vision of what he had been seeking. The light that shone in him was the enlightenment he was searching for. Buddha delivered his first sermon at Benares on the banks of river Ganges.

          Gautama Buddha died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar, near Benares. After him, his followers were divided into two sects: Mahayana and Hinayana. Buddhism is now followed in Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan.

 

          The word Buddha literally means ‘The Enlightened One’. This was the title given to Siddhartha Gautama. He became the founder of the religion called Buddhism.

          Buddha was born as a prince in the 6th century B.C. in a warrior community of Nepal called ‘Sakyas’. Although brought up in great luxury, he did not show any attachment to the material delights. Even when young, he had a sensitive and philosophical temperament. Though he had everything necessary for worldly pleasures, he was somehow dissatisfied.

          One day Siddhartha went out of his palace grounds on his chariot to get a glimpse of the town. On his way he saw three, sights which he had never seen before: a sick man, an old man and a dead man. These had a deep impact on his mind and made him sad and thoughtful. He could sense the eternal truths of life and realized that life was full of sorrows and suffering. He wondered if sickness, old age and death ultimately grab everyone’s life then what was the goal of life and how men could best use the comparatively short lives they had on this earth. These questions kept on hunting his mind.

          One night Siddhartha left his palace in the pursuit of his goal. He was then 29 years old, married and father to a son. He left behind his wife and infant son in the palace. He spent several years studying under various teachers, but none could impart him the wisdom he was searching for. Finally, travelling from one place to another he reached a place in North India, now called Bodh Gaya. There he sat for many days under a tree in deep meditation, until suddenly one morning he had a wonderful experience of a starting vision of what he had been seeking. The light that shone in him was the enlightenment he was searching for. Buddha delivered his first sermon at Benares on the banks of river Ganges.

          Gautama Buddha died at the age of 80 at Kushinagar, near Benares. After him, his followers were divided into two sects: Mahayana and Hinayana. Buddhism is now followed in Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Sri Lanka, China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan.

 

          The Stone Age probably began more than three million years ago. It faded away some 5000 years ago and was succeeded by the Bronze Age. This period has been described as the landmark in the human history when man learned to make and use stone tools. This was followed by the metal age when people learnt the use of metals. 

          The Stone Age has been divided into three periods: the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age; the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age.

          The Paleolithic or the Old Stone Age essentially began with the appearance of the first ‘hominids’ or man-like forms such as the australopithecines. The Paleolithic men were all hunters. Their tools were generally crude and made by flaking. The oldest Paleolithic tools are about 2,500,000 years old. It is likely that apart from the stone tools, the earliest hominids also used tools fabricated from wood and bone. The Pleistoce Epoch began about 2,500,000 years ago and lasted until about 10,000 years ago. During the latter part of the Old Stone Age, people had learned the art of making paintings on the cave walls. They had also learned the sculpture work.

          The Mesolithic period or the Middle Stone Age usually refers to that period when in the north-western Europe certain advancement started in about 8000 BC and lasted until about 2700 BC. During this period finer stone tools were made. The hunters used tiny flakes of flint in arrows and harpoons.

           During the Neolithic or New Stone Age, farming and the manufacture of pottery became widespread in Europe. The New Stone Age began in the Middle East about 9000 years ago. The people in the New Stone Age manufactured smooth axe heads of ground stone as they learned to grind and polish stones. The domestication of animals was an important factor in Neolithic life as was agriculture, including the plant care and growing of crops. This was the period when mining also came to be practiced. By this time agriculture had started and the people started forming villages.

          When the Europeans discovered America most of the Native Americans (Red Indians) were living in a Neolithic state. Some Australian aborigines and tribes in New Guinea still lead largely a Stone Age life.

          Man has always had a burning desire to explore the world around him. This natural urge within him to discover and see what lies beyond his own limited horizon has always led him to explore outside his own land. The explorers of ancient times often undertook perilous journeys across the seas as well as by land for trading, conquest and other purposes.

          But events were somewhat different in the 14th and 15th centuries. It was the period of Renaissance when people again became interested after a long gap, in every aspect of art, science, architecture and literature. New ideas and outlooks were emerging in all fields and the field of exploration was no exception. New lands and sea-routes were being discovered by European explorers. Columbus, a very brave and determined seaman, probably has earned the highest recognition in the history of exploration for his adventures. The most famous among his voyages was the one when he discovered the first sea-route to America, thereby opening it to the rest of the world. 

           Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) was a gifted voyager who had a dream to discover the sea-route to Indies (Asia) by sailing westwards. Sailors of those days used to sail east to reach China, Japan and India and managed to bring plenty of gold, spices and treasure. Columbus was convinced that Earth was not flat but round and thought he could reach Indies quicker by sailing west as this could be the shortest route. To translate his ideas into action he approached the Kings of Portugal and England for help who turned him down. Finally Queen Isabella of Spain agreed to sponsor his voyage and provided him ships, manpower and money, required for the voyage. 

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          The scout movement commenced in 1903 after the appearance of a book called Scouting for Boys, written by the then Inspector General of Cavalry in the British Army Lt. Col. Sir Robert Baden Powel. Although the author’s basic intention was only to formulate certain guiding principles to be followed by the existing youth organizations, it soon became evident that a new movement had begun. In fact, Baden Powel came to be known as the father of the scout movement.

          Baden Powel had held an experimental camp on Brown-sea Island in Poole harbour, Dorset, and put his ideas into practice. He believed that the youths should organize themselves into small natural groups of six or seven under a boy leader. Their training should add another dimension to their education by teaching them the art of mapping, signalling, rope knotting, first-aid and all the other skills needed in camping and similar outdoor activities. 

          A boy becomes a scout by joining a scout troop any time between the age of 11 and 16. Before being accepted as a scout, a boy has to take an oath that he would do his duty to God and his country or sovereign, help other people at all times and to obey the scout laws. The Scout Laws are: i) a scout is to be trusted, ii) a scout is loyal, iii) a scout is friendly and considerate, iv) a scout is a brother to all other scouts, v) a scout has courage in all difficulties, vi) a scout makes good use of his time and cares for others’ possessions and property, vii) a scout has respect for himself and for others.

          Almost all of the scout activities are based on the patrol which is the primary unit in scouting. The patrol leader takes part in the planning and running of activities. This does not mean that each patrol works only on its own. The patrols regularly come together for Troop Meetings and activities. The scouts from different patrols may even work for a particular Proficiency Badge in which they share a common interest. The traditional scouting activities are hiking, camping and pioneering.

          Scouting today is a worldwide movement. There is a Boy Scouts World Committee, elected by the Boy Scout World Conference which comprises all National Member Associations. The conference is the General Assembly of world scouts and meets every two years. 

            The Incas were South American Indians who ruled an empire that extended from central Chile to the present Colombia-Ecuador border. The centre of their empire was Peru and they established their capital at Cuzco in the 12th century. The legend goes that the first Inca ruler, Manco Capan was believed to have been descended from the sun god. The Incas began their conquest in the early 15th century and within 100 years they had gained control of an Andean population of about 12,000,000 people. 

            The Inca society was a highly stratified and structured one. The emperor ruled with the aid of an aristocratic bureaucracy that was harsh and brutal in the exercise of its authority. Their technology and architecture were highly developed. Most of the Inca people were farmers and grew maize, beans, tomatoes, chillies, peppers, cotton etc. Nobody paid taxes, but every man was periodically called to serve in the army or to aid in the construction of buildings, roads, temples or mining. The Incas built suspension bridges, hillside terraces, long irrigation canals and immense fortresses, palaces, temples etc. and a few can still be seen throughout the Andes. In addition to all these, medicine and surgery were also highly developed. They made their clothes from the llama wool and cotton. Practically every man was a farmer, producing his own food.

            The Incas were conquered by a Spanish adventurer, Francisco Pizarro in 1532. Pizarro entered the Inca Empire with 180 soldiers. At that time there was a power-struggle going on between Huascar and his half-brother Atahualpa as to who would be the Inca ruler. Atahualpa was winning the contest. Pizarro captured him by treachery. In the meantime Huascar had been captured and killed. Pizarro then killed Atahualpa though the Incas fulfilled the demand of the Spaniards who promised the release of Atahualpa in return for gold. Now the Inca Empire had no leader, and it could not resist the brutal Spanish adventurers. The Spanish conquerors transformed the Inca Empire into a colonial appendage of Spain. Many Indians migrated eastward to escape the brutalities of the colonial system. The Inca religious institutions were crushed by massive campaigns against idolatry. According to many historians, the civilization the Spanish conquerors destroyed was in many ways better than their own. 

          The United Kingdom comprises England, Scotland, Wales and the Northern Ireland and many other small islands. It was formed in 1801 when the ‘Act of Union’ brought Ireland under the same parliament with England, Scotland and Wales. The official name of the country was changed to the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland’. But 26 Irish countries left the Union in 1922 and formed the Irish Free State, now called the Republic of Ireland. Five years later the ‘Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act’ named the union as the Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and the monarchy is hereditary.

          Wales was the first to unite with England, having been subdued by King Edward I in 1282. The heir to the English throne has been known as the Prince of Wales ever since Edward gave the title to his infant son in 1301. But it was not until 1536, during the reign of Henry VIII, a Tudor monarch of Welsh descent, that an Act of Union peacefully incorporated the principality into the Kingdom. 

          The name Great Britain came into currency after King James VI of Scotland succeeded to the English throne in 1603 as James I, and United the two crowns, though not the nations. Another ‘Act of union’ brought England and Scotland under one government in 1707.

          The Union flag of the present kingdom is composed of the flag of England (white with an upright red cross), the flag of Scotland (blue with a diagonal white cross) and the red diagonal cross of Ireland.

          On 29 May, 1953, under the Royal Titles Act, a proclamation was issued which gave the Queen the title ‘Elizabeth the second, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the commonwealth, Defender of the faith’.

 

          We are sure you have heard about the Trojan War. It was fought between the early Greeks and the people of Troy (now in Turkey). The scene of this great battle was the city of Troy in about 1230 BC. The war lasted for 10 years.

          According to the legend, the war started in about 1240 BC. When Paris, the prince of Troy, fell in love with Helen, the beautiful wife of King Menelaus of Sparta and carried her off to Troy with him. Menelau’s brother, the great king Agamemnon of Argos, summoned all the kings of the other Greek cities, and set off with a thousand ships to bring Helen back. For a number of years the Greeks besieged Troy without success. Then they devised an ingenious scheme to defeat the enemy.

          They built a great wooden horse which was called the Trojan horse. The horse was built by Epeius, a  master carpenter and pugilist. The Greeks concealed a raiding party inside it and left it outside the city walls. The Greeks, pretending to retreat, sailed to the nearby Island of Tenedos. They left behind Sinon, who persuaded the Trojans to believe that the horse was an offering to Athena to make Troy impregnable. The Trojans brought the horse inside the city walls. What they did not know then was that the horse was full of Greek soldiers. In the middle of the night, they came out of the horse, opened the city gates and let in the rest of the Greek army. They killed all the Trojans they could find, and set fire to the city. It was completely destroyed.

          The legend of the Trojan War has been the subject of a famous epic called ‘The Iliad’ by the blind Greek poet, Homer, written Ilium is another name for Troy. The story is told at length in the 2nd book of Virgil’s ‘Aeneid’ and is also touched upon in Homer’s ‘Odyssey’.

          No one knows if the story is true. However, a German archaeologist, Heinrich Schliemann, discovered the site of the city in 1871-94.

 

          Guerrilla warfare is waged by irregular forces, generally in small-scale operations, often in enemy held territories. The word guerrilla is a Spanish word which means ‘little war’. The word came into use during the Duke of Wellington’s campaigns to help the Spanish - Portuguese guerrillas to drive the French out of the Iberian Peninsula. Lawrence of Arabia, a great force behind the guerrillas in their struggle against the Turks in the First World War, once remarked, ‘Guerrilla war is much more intellectual than a bayonet charge’.

          Guerrilla warfare is generally preferred when the enemy is a large well-organized force with sophisticated weapons and it becomes practically difficult to defeat the enemy in a conventional warfare. Guerillas are hit-and-run fighters or use similar methods as they lack the manpower and other resources to face their powerful adversaries. The guerillas seldom use regular uniforms and secretly take the help of friendly local people. Sometimes they attack under the cover of darkness of the night and do agricultural or pastoral work along with the local people in daytime to avoid their enemy’s notice. They are an extremely mobile force. Earlier they were using indigenous and self-made weapons — at times relying on the arms and ammunition captured from the enemy and at times helped by their sympathizers with modern weapons. The technical organization of guerrilla units varies according to their operational demands. They may be in a squad of 4, 5, 11 or more. They usually live in places where they can easily hide, such as forests and mountains.

          Guerrilla warfare underwent significant changes after World War II when it received the intellectual support, direction and guidance from some quarters. Also the fight was for some revolutionary causes like to overthrow an oppressive government or to change the social order of the time. If Shivaji, the great Marattha warrior, used the technique of guerrilla warfare to fight the powerful Mughals, Mao-tse-Tung of China favoured it to establish communism in China. The LTTE militants used this warfare in their fight against the Sri Lankan army.

         The guerrillas won their wars whenever they got the support of the people. But over the years, the nature of guerrilla warfare has changed completely as it has become more city-oriented and individualistic but less idealistic.

        A guerrilla force cannot fight all the time. They control safe areas where they can retire for rest, recuperation and repair of arms and where new recruits can be indoctrinated, trained and equipped.

          One of the most famous guerrilla leaders of our times was Che Guevara of Cuba who led guerrilla armies at many places of the world and was very popular with the masses. He was killed while leading a band of guerrillas against the Bolivian army in 1967. Among the other famous leaders who led guerrilla wars at some point of time were Lenin, Trotsky, Mao, Tito, Ho Chi Minh and Yasser Arafat etc.  

          The village of Khajuraho is in the Chattarpur district of Madhya Pradesh. This place was the capital of Chandela kings from 9th to 13th century. These kings built 85 temples between 950 A.D and 1050 A.D. Out of these only 20 temples survive today. These temples were dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, Brahma and the Tirthankaras.

          During this age India was called the Asian El Dorado. The people were prosperous and happy and the fertile land yielded plenty of crops, fruits and flowers. This climate was most conducive to creative efforts and temple-building emerged as its chief form.

          The Khajuraho temples are of the Indo-Aryan type. Each temple stands on a high platform and the customary enclosure is absent. The temples are in three groups and occupy an area of about eight square miles. The western group, the largest and most important, is situated at the axis of the Lalguan-Rajnagar road. The eastern group comprises Brahmin and Jain shrines close to the present Khajuraho village. The southern group is almost one mile away from the south of the village.

          The western group comprises the oldest Chaunsath Yogini, the Kendriya Mahadeva, the Devi Jagadambe, Chitragupta temple, Vishwanatha and Nandi temples. The other temples of this group are Parvati temple, Lakshmana temple, Matangesvara and Varah temples.

          The Eastern group consists of Vamana temple, Javari temple, Brahma temple, Adinatha temple, Parsvnatha temple and several other Jain temples.

          The Southern group has only two temples — Duladeo temple and Chaturbhuj temple.

          The temples of Khajuraho present a unique art and sculpture. They have engraved figures of gods and goddesses, celestial nymphs and hand-maidens (‘apsaras’ and ‘surasundaris’), bold serpents and leonine beasts and myriads of women. ‘Mithuna’ couples (rioting figures of love and lust) have accorded Khajuraho a distinctive status. At the centre of each temple there is the statue of an honoured god.

          In addition to these temples there is a small Archaeological Museum at Khajuraho, showing mainly sculptures collected on temple sites. The temples are visited by thousands of visitors every year. 

          Empires rise and fall but the nation survives. India has survived as a great nation because unity in diversity has become an inherent feature of our country built over thousands of years. One of the most important pillars of this unity is the political unification, the present one being a gift of the British rules though the pre-independence British Empire was much larger. But long before the British Empire, India had witnessed great empires at different phases of its history; for example during the reigns of Ashoka, Samudragupta, Harshavardhana, Akbar, and Aurangzeb etc. But when did the first great Indian Empire arise?

          During the pre-Christian era some great civilizations had flourished in India but they had their geographical and political limitations. Thereafter arose some well-organized and better governed states but they were very small independent kingdoms. It was only after Alexander’s invasion that India saw the growth of its first ever large empire, under the adventurous leadership of Chandragupta Maurya. Initially Chandragupta was the Commander-in-Chief of the army of Nanda dynasty who were then ruling South Bihar in Eastern India. For some reason or other, Chandragupta attempted a revolt but was unsuccessful. He fled away and met Alexander the Great seeking his co-operation. When Alexander left India putting behind one of his generals in charge, Chandragupta again approached and got the help of this general. He became the ruler of Punjab and Bihar. A great political thinker of those times, Chanakya, also helped Chandragupta in his mission since he had also to settle scores with the Nanda dynasty. Thus the seeds of the first great Indian Empire were sown in around 321 B.C. and the rule of the great Maurya dynasty began. Later he extended his empire from the mouth of river Ganges in the east to the mountains of Hindukush between modern Pakistan and Afghanistan. This was the first really large and powerful centralized state in India.

          After empire building Chandragupta concentrated on defence and public administration. He maintained an elaborate spy network and an efficient bureaucracy. Though there was autocratic government at the top yet democracy prevailed at the village level.

          Later, Ashoka the Great became the third ruler of this great empire under whose reign the empire was further extended to the whole of India except the Deep South and south-east. The state progressed and flourished in all fields. 

           Jalal-ud-Din Mohammed Akbar, the greatest of the Mughal Emperors of India, founded in 1582, a new religion called Din-i-Ilahi (or Divine Religion). This religion tried to bring together the Hindus and Muslims by combining the good points of Hinduism and Islam. Akbar wanted Hindus and Muslims to worship God at the same shrine in a common ritual. 

            Din-i-Ilahi was essentially an ethical system, prohibiting such sins as lust, sensuality, slander and pride and laying emphasis on virtues of piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness. The soul was encouraged to purify itself, through yearning for God, celibacy was condoned and the slaughter of animals was forbidden. There were no sacred scriptures or a priestly hierarchy in this newly-founded religion.

          But this religion did not attract many followers and practically died with Akbar. 

     Akbar (1542-1605) was the son of Humayun and the grandson of Babur. He was born on October 15, 1542 at Umarkot, Sind which is now in Pakistan. Akbar became the governor of Punjab at the age of 13, and succeeded his father, Humayun, to the Mughal throne in 1556. With able generalship, he overthrew his rivals and embarked upon a career of conquest, which by 1562 gave him domain over Punjab and Multan, the basin of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers, Gwalior to the south and Kabul in Afghanistan. Subsequently he crossed the Narmada River into the Deccan, and intended his dominion southward. By 1605 his empire contained 15 provinces or subahs and stretched from the Hindu Kush Mountains to the Godavari River and from Bengal to Gujarat.

           In order to preserve the unity of his empire, Akbar maintained good relations with the non-Muslim population. He won the loyalty of the Hindus as well as other communities also. He reformed and strengthened his central administration, centralized his financial system and reorganized tax collection procedure. Akbar was loved by everyone.

          The Panama Canal and the Suez Canal are the two most important man-made waterways of the world. The Panama Canal is an inter-oceanic waterway connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans through the Isthmus of Panama. Ships sailing between the east and west coasts of the United States shorten their journey by about 8000 nautical miles by using this canal!

          The history of the Panama Canal construction is very interesting. In the 16th century, the Spanish conceived the idea of constructing a canal across the Isthmus. In 1846 the United States concluded a treaty with Columbia. In 1855, the United States extended financial help for the project. The Panama Canal company was formed which was headed by Ferdinande Lesseps — the builder of the Suez Canal. However, within ten years due to faulty planning, graft and the ravages of yellow fever, malaria and cholera, the company became bankrupt. In 1894, the new Panama Canal Company reorganized the work, but made little progress due to lack of money: Following Panama’s declaration of Independence from Columbia in 1903, and the conclusion of the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty between USA and Panama the canal building rights passed into U.S. hands. Work began in 1904 and finally the Canal was completed and first opened to traffic in August 1914. Since then many additions have been made. Its length is about 82 km. On 31st December 1999, Panama will take over full control of the canal from US. 

          The Canal consists of short sea-level sections at each end, three pairs of locks that lift ships to 26m above sea level, a 32 mile elevated section that includes Gatun Lake and a narrow eight-mile long excavated Channel, known as Gaillard Cut, running through the continental divide. The dimensions of its lock chambers (1000 ft in length, 110 ft in width and 41 ft in depth) permit most commercial ships as well as main navy ships to pass through the canal. Only very big ships cannot pass.

          The canal locks operate by gravity flow of water from Gatun and Madden lakes. The locks are of uniform length, width and depth and permit simultaneous transit of ships in either direction. Each lock gate has two leaves 65 ft wide and 7 ft thick, set on hinges. The gates range in height from 47 to 82 ft. Their movements are controlled by motors. They are operated by a control tower.

          The ships, including the waiting time, require 15 hours to negotiate the canal. Once a ship has been authorized to proceed, the average transit time through the canal, however, is seven to eight hours in deep water. The traffic through the Panama Canal has raised from 807 transits in 1916 to 15,523 transits in 1970. The cargo carried in 1970 amounted to 132,500,000 tons. Presently, average transits of ships carrying goods have been increased manifoldly.

          The Canal has helped to reduce greatly the travelling distance for ships. Ships no longer need to go around Cape Horn to go from the east to the west coast of America. From one coast of North America to ports on the other side of South America, the distance has been shortened by 3500 miles. Ships sailing between Europe and East Asia or Australia save about 2000 miles by using the canal.

          In view of the increasing size of bulk carriers and container ships and the inability of the present canal to accommodate the large aircraft carriers of the U.S., there have been proposals to expand the present waterway. 

 

          A museum is an institution that collects, studies, exhibits and conserves objects for cultural and educational purposes. They are of several kinds. There are museums devoted to art, science, history, industry and technology.

          The word ‘museum’ comes from the Greek word Mouseion which means ‘temple of the Muses’. The Muses were the goddesses of the arts. One of the first institutions, called Mouseion was founded in Alexandria, Egypt in the 3rd century B.C. Its aim was to collect information that might be of some interest to the scholars. The scholars used to live and carry out their research there. The museum displayed a collection of art pieces and antiquities like statues, astronomical and surgical instruments, elephant tusks and hides of rare animals.

          Later kings and nobles started having their own museums by collecting art objects and antiques from different parts of the world. However, these were private museums, meant only for their families and friends.

          After the French Revolution the doors of the French museums were opened to the general public. In 1793, during the revolution, the Republican Government established a national museum in Lauvre, Paris. For the first time in the 19th century buildings were specially designed for this purpose. One of the first buildings in Europe was the Atles Museum in Berlin, Germany. It was constructed in 1830.

          Today, we have museums in almost all the big cities of the world. They are visited by thousands of people everyday. The oldest museum in the world is the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford which was built in 1679. The largest museum in the world is the American Museum of Natural History in New York. It was founded in 1874. The largest and the most visited museum in the United Kingdom is the British Museum which was opened for public in 1759. Bombay, Madras, Delhi and other big cities in India have museums devoted to different subjects.