My Science School

           When Russia had a royal family, the emperor was called the Tsar. Tsars ruled Russia from 1547 to 1917. The first Russian ruler to use this title was Ivan IV, also known as Ivan the Terrible.

           Ivan the Terrible assumed the throne in 1547 at the age of seventeen. His reign was peppered with battles with foreign invaders, and by a rule of terror never before seen in Russian history. Ivan suspected conspiracies everywhere, and eventually announced he would abdicate because of the lack of loyalty around him. He was only willing to continue to rule if he could deal with alleged deserters at his discretion.

           His terms were accepted, and Ivan launched his reign of terror. He hired a large personal army, the Oprichniki, and all potential traitors were cruelly executed. People were impaled and mutilated, while whipping and torture were common. Ivan built a palace in Moscow, and the dungeons were supposedly full of prisoners, of which at least twenty were tortured to death everyday in front of the laughing Tsar. Thousands were hanged, drowned, or deported, while the buildings and countryside were plundered and destroyed.

           Despite his cruelty, Ivan improved Russia’s governmental administration, and contributed to the nation’s culture. Ivan was also a good writer, with a talent for biting sarcasm. He was eager to maintain political relations with Europe, and was a devout adherent of the Orthodox Church. Ivan alternated between periods of savagery and piety, often sending great memorial payments and treasures to monasteries- yet nothing could wipe out his reputation of being truly ‘terrible’! 

               In 1519, an explorer by the name of Hernan Cortes left his home in Cuba in order to explore Mexico. The major civilization in the region was that of the Aztecs, led by Montezuma II. Cortes and over 500 men arrived in Mexico, and began travelling towards the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. It is thought that Cortes’s arrival coincided with an Aztec prophecy about a white-skinned god arriving from the east. So, at first, Montezuma welcomed Cortes and gave him lavish gifts. However, relations quickly deteriorated and, fearing an attack, Cortes took Montezuma hostage, demanding a huge ransom from his people.

                After Montezuma was killed during a revolt in Tenochtitlan, Cortes laid siege to the city, which fell after three-months. A new settlement, Mexico City, was built on the ruins, and settled with Spanish colonists, becoming the centre of Spanish America. Cortes secured control over Mexico, and in 1523, was named governor and captain general of New Spain.

 

               Francisco Pizarro was a Spanish soldier and explorer. Although he was born into a poor family, Pizarro settled in Panama City on the Pacific Coast, and became known as one of its most famous and richest citizens. However, rumours about a very wealthy Inca Empire were circulating at the time, and craving more wealth and excitement, Pizarro set out in 1524 in search of this empire. He traveled through much of the Pacific Coast of America along Peru, and after many years of failed attempts, Pizarro finally ‘discovered’ the Incan Empire.

         Pizarro conquered the Incas brutally and quickly, and stole immense hoards of gold, silver, and other treasures. He looted, and generally destroyed the Incan capital of Cusco, and then founded Lima, which is the capital of modern Peru.

 

          Francisco de Almeida was a soldier and explorer, who established his reputation as a brilliant commander in the wars against the Moors of Granada. He was made the first Portuguese Viceroy of India in March 1505 by the King, Manuel I. Instead of sailing directly to India, he spent a year sailing up the eastern coast of Africa, building forts, and conquering Arab trading towns along the way. This provided the ships which followed with safe ports and provisions on the long journey.

           On his arrival in India, he established his base at Cochin, and with his son Lourenzo, explored the Malabar Coast and the island of Sri Lanka. He fought Arab, Egyptian, and Indian united fleets at every opportunity. Almeida set sail for Portugal in 1509. While restocking at the Cape of Good Hope, in Table Bay, he died in a skirmish with the Hottentots, on March 1st, 1510. 

           Mehmed II was a sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He extended the empire from Southeastern Europe to the Danube and from Anatolia to the Euphrates River. However, he is most famous for his siege of Constantinople, and his victory over the Byzantine Emperor, Constantine.

            When, at the age of twenty-one, Mehmed II sat on the throne of the Ottoman sultans, his first thoughts turned to taking over the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. He began his attack by taking control of the Strait of Bosphorus so as to cut off Constantinople from the Black Sea. Working to improve Constantinople’s defences, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine ensured that the massive walls were repaired and strengthened. To prevent a naval attack, Constantine directed that a large chain be stretched across the mouth of the harbour to block Ottoman ships from entering.

 

Continue reading "Why was Mehmed II’s victory at Constantinople a turning point in history?"

          After unifying the Mongols, Genghis Khan went on to conquer all of China. He breached the Great Wall, laid waste many cities along the way, and captured the capital. However, Genghis Khan was not a tyrant. He let the Chinese live as they had - there was no pressure to change their customs or persecution of their religion.

           Now that the Chinese were conquered, Genghis Khan turned his attention to trade. When the Sultan of Persia killed his ambassadors and refused to trade, Genghis Khan went to war yet again. He conquered almost all of West Asia, expanding the boundaries of the Mongol Empire until it covered almost all of Asia.

           After restoring the trade route in the west, Khan returned to his home in East Asia, only to find the people in China had revolted. He stopped the revolt, and was finally returning home when he fell ill and died. Thus ended the reign of Genghis Khan, one of the greatest rulers the world has ever seen.

 

            There have been many powerful generals who conquered, expanded their nation’s borders, and influenced millions of people by spreading their culture. Few generals, however, matched the effectiveness and cunning that was possessed by Genghis Khan of the Mongols.

             Genghis Khan’s real name was Temujin. When his father died, he was still a child, and his father’s enemies had the family exiled, believing that without a clan and the protection it offered, they would die. However, instead of giving up, the resourceful Mongol family lived off the land, and prospered. Temujin became stronger and stronger, and took control of the family. As he continued to grow, other tribes feared that he was becoming too strong, and devised a plan to capture Temujin. He was then tied with a wooden yoke that restricted his movement. However, he escaped one night by knocking his guard in the head.

             After escaping, Temujin started to make alliances with other tribes, and was eventually assimilated into the tribe of his wife. Soon after this event, the camp was raided, and his wife was captured. Temujin rescued his wife. Many men started to follow him, and Temujin was starting to become a Khan.

                Over next several years, Temujin gained several more followers, and started training his men for battle. The scattered Mongol people united, and became a single nation. Temujin, after eliminating all his rivals, became the supreme Khan, or Genghis Khan.

 

                Saladin was a famous military hero. His real name was Salah al Din Yusuf. He was Kurdish, hailing from Tikrit in Northern Iraq. He came to Egypt in 1168 as an assistant to his uncle, who was a general. After Saladin’s uncle died the next year, Saladin took power. In the late 12th century, he succeeded in uniting various parts of the Middle East and Mesopotamia, and in overtaking the Christian armies of the early crusades through a combination of shrewd diplomacy and decisive action. In 1187, Saladin recaptured Jerusalem at the Battle of Hattin. When his soldiers entered the city of Jerusalem, they were not allowed to kill civilians, rob people, or damage the city.

                 Saladin’s capture of Jerusalem prompted King Richard to launch the Third Crusade. Though he came close, Jerusalem eluded Richard. After a year’s stalemate, Richard made a truce with Saladin, and started his journey home. In 1193, Saladin died in Damascus. Saladin had earned himself a remarkable place in history.

         Enrico Dandolo was the Doge, or elected chief magistrate of the former republic of Venice. Dandolo had served Venice in diplomatic and perhaps military roles for many years, with at least two expeditions involving the Byzantine Empire based at Constantinople. He lost his sight in a battle with his city’s Byzantine rivals, but this did not prevent him from making Venice the greatest naval power in the Mediterranean. He did this by building ships for the Crusaders to transport their armies. The Crusaders were missions organized by the Church to recapture Christian lands that had been invaded by others. 

            The Venetians lent ships to the Crusaders, and supplied their armies with food and fodder for the horses for a staggering fee. The original plan of the Crusaders was to land an army in Egypt. However, Venice had a trade relationship with Egypt, and did not wish for this relationship to be threatened. When the Crusaders could not pay the amount that was due to Venice, Dandolo convinced the Crusaders to assist Venice in conquering the city of Zara, which was now under Hungarian control. Zara fell in November of 1202. Despite the plunder and economic gain of Zara, the wealth gained was still insufficient for the Crusaders to break free from their debt. So, Dandolo helped the Crusaders gain complete control over Constantinople on April 13th, 1204. In the days that followed, the Crusaders pillaged the city.

             Venice flourished under Dandolo. His foreign policy ensured Venice gained exclusive trading rights throughout the Mediterranean Sea. Historians often refer to him as the ‘founder of the Venetian Colonial Empire’.