My Science School

            Hannibal was the leader of the army of Carthage, which was a Phoenician city in North Africa. Carthage was a major rival to the Roman republic.

            Hannibal’s father was also a general in the Carthaginian army, and had fought against Rome, but he lost.

            Hannibal hated the Romans and swore to destroy Rome. He was a brilliant general. When Rome declared war on Carthage, Hannibal decided to launch a sudden attack on Rome in revenge. He decided to cross the Alps with 90,000 foot soldiers, 12000 cavalry, and 37 elephants.

            But his plans did not work. The route was more rugged than he expected. Without sufficient places to rest, he lost nearly all his elephants, and half of his men. Even then he attacked smaller outposts and stole weapons and food intended for Rome. Finally Hannibal’s army lost to the Romans but Hannibal himself somehow managed to get away. 

          The first Punic War, fought between Rome and Carthage in 264 BC, was the beginning of a long period of fighting known as the Punic Wars.

          Carthage had a large, wealthy kingdom with a brilliant naval force, whereas the Roman Republic had a strong government and powerful military. The Punic wars were, in fact, three bursts of fighting. In the first Punic war, Rome won quite easily.

          The second Punic war took place between 218 and 201 BC. It was the greatest of the three wars. This war is famous for Hannibal’s great march to Italy and passage of the Alps with an army including elephants and a huge number of cavalry. Later, the war was won by Romans.

          The third war was fought when Carthage was recovering economically. Rome felt threatened by this, and declared war. Romans won this war again. 

          The small city of Rome overthrew the shackles of monarchy and created a republican government that represented the wishes of its citizens. The Roman Republic was established around 510 BC, after the expulsion of King Tarquin. For the next five hundred years Rome was run as a republic.

          Power passed to the senate, a lawmaking body made up of nobles and headed by two senior officials called consuls. They were elected each year to manage the affairs of the Senate and the army.

          There was also an assembly composed of the common citizens of Rome. It had limited powers. The Assembly could vote to declare war, but the Senate could override them.

          Roman republic changed the way of life in Rome. It followed a policy of expansion and established many provinces. Each province was provided with military, and food. Later, the Roman republic faded away mainly because of internal politics. 

          The Ancient Romans considered Romulus and Remus, the twins as the founders of the city. As babies they were abandoned on the banks of the River Tiber. But they were rescued by a she-wolf, who suckled them and they survived.

          Later, they were found by a shepherd who raised them. They grew up to very strong and clever warriors, and decided to build a city on the spot where they were abandoned by their mother.

          Thus, the twins founded the city. But in an argument over as to who would rule the city, Romulus killed Remus and named the city after himself, and named Rome. According to legend, he was the first king of Rome, which was founded in 753 BC.

          From a small group of villages, Rome grew to become the capital of one of the most powerful empires. 

          The Etruscan Civilization was a brilliant civilization and played a major role in developing Ancient Rome. Their achievements set the stage for the development of ancient Roman art and culture. 

          The Etruscan economy was based on agriculture, trade, and mineral resources. The Etruscans learnt a lot from the Greeks. They maintained a strong trade relationship with Greece. They were experts in metallurgy, and they exported metals to Greek, which added prosperity to them. They also used iron.

          The Etruscans ruled much of northern Italy, and set up kingdoms in Rome. Their cities were marvellous with stone temples and statues.

          The Etruscans’ homes were built of mud bricks, with timber on stone foundation. They dug canals and ditches to bring water to their fields. Soon many of the other tribes in Italy began to copy Etruscan ways. Undoubtedly Etruscans influenced the early Rome.

 

               Rome grew from a small kingdom in Italy. It became a republic, and was one of the mightiest empires of the ancient world, with an empire stretching the length of the Mediterranean Sea.

               Rome was built on seven hills, near a crossing place of the river Tiber. Since the area was very fertile, a tribe of people known as the Latins settled here. They were herders and farmers who lived in a group of small villages on the hills. These settlements flourished, as the River Tiber provided them means of transportation and communication.

               Later, another tribe called the Etruscans arrived from Etruria. They chose a strong position for their city, on the top of seven hills. Even though their cultures were different, the Latins and the Etruscans later became known as simply Romans and remembered in the history of Rome. 

          China had two dynasties that made important contributions to the country, and the Han dynasty is one among them. Han dynasty in the second imperial dynasty alters the Qin dynasty. This dynasty ruled China for the longest period.  

          The Han dynasty began with a peasant revolt, which was led by Lin Bang, against the then emperor Qin. He later changed his name to Han Gaozu, and established the Han dynasty. The era of the Han dynasty was a period of Invention and science. The first suspension bridge was built, and Chinese medicine was developed. Paper was one of the important Inventions as it helped the government to keep records of the empire. Other inventions include crop rotation, iron casting, and advances in mathematics, and astronomy.

          Chinese merchants traded across the continent of Asia. During the Han dynasty, the nobles led lives of luxury. It was an era of peace and prosperity, and allowed China to expand to a major world power. 

          Qin Shih Huang Di was the first emperor of China. He used his power and influence to standardize Chinese customs, beliefs, and political practices. Shih Huang Di created a system for standardizing weights and measures. He also modernized the language, and introduced a codified set of laws. A powerful army and loyal group of officials were his strength.

          Shih Huang Di made improvements in Chinese infrastructure like building new roads, canals etc., to make transportation easier. The beginning of the construction of the Great Wall of China was also undertaken during his reign.

          Hundreds of thousands of labourers were forcibly put to work, to control the flow of rivers and to lay 6800 kilometres of roads. He introduced round coins, with holes in the middle, so people could carry them by threading them on to a string.

          Shih Huang Di has also caused much destruction within China when he burned a large portion of the ancient philosophical writings.

 

          The Great Wall of China is a man-made marvel. The Great Wall took centuries to build. The history of the Great Wall begins during the period of Qin dynasty.

          The Great Wall was built across the northern border to keep out the hostile Huns, and other invaders. The emperor Qin Shih Huang Di, ordered his builders to join up many existing walls along the Chinese northern frontier. The wall extends through mountain ridges, rivers, and plains of China like a giant dragon.

          Built of fired bricks and mortar, the wall is about 6700 kilometres long. It is equipped with shooting platforms and weapon stores. It is between five and eight metres in width, wide enough for the troops and carts to move along it.

          Another project of Qin Shih Huang Di was the terracotta army, which was intended to protect the emperor after his death. 

          The Qin dynasty was one of the greatest empires in Chinese history. In around 300 BC, seven different states in China fought each other. The Qin state emerged as the most powerful of the warring states. King Zhen of the Qin state defeated the other six states. King Zhen took the name of Qin Shih Huang Di, and became the first emperor of China.

          As a part of its centralization, the Qin connected the northern border walls of the states it defeated, making the first Great Wall of China. 

                 During its rule, the dynasty built a powerful army, and increased trade across China. The contributions of the Qin dynasty also include the unification of the legal code. They laid down standards for writing, money, weights and measures. Civil servants were appointed by the Emperor to handle daily governance. The changes made by Qin dynasty helped the later dynasties like Han, to rule effectively. 

             

 

                The period of the ‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ was of great intellectual expansion in China. Regional rulers rose during the period between 476 and 221 BC. They waged bitter wars. So, this period is known as the period of warring states. Thinkers and teachers offered their services to the new rulers. Hence, this period is also called the ‘Period of the Hundred Schools of Thought’. Taoism arose at this time. Great philosopher Lao- tze was the founder of Taoism. 

Continue reading "What was the role played by the ‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ in Chinese society? "

If we look at Chinese history, we will find that it was mostly ruled by powerful families called dynasties.

The earliest one was Shang dynasty. They began to rule in around 1600 BC. The Shang dynasty ruled for more than 500 years, until they were conquered by the Zhou, in 11th century BC. The Zhou dynasty ruled for around 800 years. From 1027 to 256 BC, the kingdom was divided into many states and the local lords looked after their areas. However, the local lords began to fight each other. Thus, the Zhou dynasty ended, and the period called the Warring States period, began.

Shang dynasty led to numerous cultural advances, and was famous for silk weaving and agriculture. The basics of the Chinese Language were also developed during this period.

The Zhou dynasty was the longest ruling dynasty in Chinese history. This was a period of economic growth, with Chinese silk and porcelain being traded abroad.

               A civilization that grew up thousands of years ago quite separately from the rest of the world - this is probably an ideal description of the great Chinese Civilization.

               There are three great river valleys in China. They are the Hwang- Ho or Yellow River, the Yangtze, and the Hsi. Ancient Chinese Civilization emerged more than 3000 years ago in the Yellow River valley. From there it extended southwards gradually. It had reached the Yangtze valley by the 6th century BC. Hence, the Hwang- Ho or Yellow River is also known as the mother river of China.

               The valley of the Yellow River was very fertile. For thousands of years, the Chinese grew millet, rice and wheat there. They also domesticated cattle, dogs, and sheep.

               The Shang, the earliest dynasty of China, built their major cities like Erlitou, Zhengzhou and Anyang in the Yellow River valley. Anyang was their capital city. Luoyang, the capital city of the Zhou dynasty, who took over the power from the Shang, also was in the plains of Yellow River.

               The Yellow River helped farmers with water to irrigate their crops. And, it became the centre of social life. In short, Chinese civilization was a gift of the Yellow River. 

 

              Unlike many other civilizations, Egypt gave prominence to women. Women of all classes in Ancient Egypt had many rights, compared to women later in history. Many of them were skilled in professions like mid-wifery, some of them were priestesses, and some even held important positions in court.

             

              Ancient Egypt also gave birth to some very famous queens. One such queen was Hatshepsut. She was the first great woman in recorded history. She remained in power for twenty years and expanded trade relations, built magnificent temples, and restored many temples as well. 

 

 

                 Another famous queen was Nefertiti. She was the wife of the New Kingdom Pharaoh Akhenaten. She ruled with her husband.

               The last ruler of independent Ancient Egypt, Queen Cleopatra VII, too was very famous. After her death in 30 BC, Egypt became part of the huge Roman Empire. 

            Egypt is known for its magnificent monuments and its history, but have you ever thought about the kings who were behind these extraordinary constructions?

            Ramses II was one among them. He was the third pharaoh of the nineteenth dynasty of Egypt. He is often regarded as the greatest and most powerful pharaoh of the Egyptian Empire who ruled over the kingdom for nearly 66 years, taking the civilization to new heights.

            His successors called him the ‘Great Ancestor’. Ramses II led several military expeditions into the Levant. By entering into peace treaties with these empires, Ramses helped to solidify Egypt’s borders on all sides, allowing for increased internal stability.

            The early part of his reign was focused on building cities, temples, and monuments. He established the city of Pi-Ramesses in the Nile Delta as his new capital and used it as the main base for his campaigns in Syria.