My Science School

For hundreds of years, the Amazonian rainforest has served as a giant refuge for thousands of indigenous people. Tribes among these people are formed based on differences in culture, language, and geographical makeup.

The northwestern side of the Amazon Rainforest, which passes through Brazil, Colombia, and Venezuela, shelters around 22 different ethnic groups. The 65,000 people belonging to these 22 different indigenous groups speak different languages. However, such differences are woven together by common threads such as festivities, inter-tribal marriages, rituals, and trade.

The Alto Xingu region in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso shelters 14 ethnic groups that together forms a larger community. Ten out of these 14 indigenous tribes differ in the language used but share the same river, culture, marriage customs, rituals, and trade. The remaining four tribes also share basic commonalities and do not maintain close ties with other groups. There are various other similarly isolated tribal congregates that survive within the Amazon Rainforests.

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The Yanomami, also spelled Yanomamo, are a group of approximately 38000 indigenous people found living in the rainforests and mountains of Northern Brazil and Southern Venezuela. About 250 villages of varying sizes belong to this tribe.

The Yanomami territory in Brazil alone is twice the size of Switzerland. This area, combined with the Venezuelan territory, forms the largest territory for indigenous people in the world.

Yanomami people live in a communal system. An entire village lives together under a single oval-roofed communal house called shabono. Some shabonos can shelter as many as 400 village members! Shabonos are made from plant matter and have a central open area for holding rituals, feasts, and games. These degradable roofs are reconstructed every 4 to 6 years.

The Yanomami tribes are better known as horticulturalists, hunters, and fishers. The male members do the hunting and the women cultivate crops. Crops form about 80 per cent of the tribe’s diet and are produced by using the slash-and-burn method. Apart from these crops such as fruits and vegetables, protein-rich meat from hunted animals and fish too completes their diet chart.

Once the lands become exhausted of their fertility and are no more fit for cultivation, the Yanomamis migrate to more fertile grounds and start life all over again. This is called shifting cultivation.

Threats from gold miners and colonisers, coupled with extensive road development activities, have polluted their lands and driven these people out of their natural homes.

The Sarawak State of Malaysia, located on the Bornean Island, is home to some of the most diverse ethnic rainforest tribes of the world. They are collectively called Dayaks meaning people of the interiors and contribute to almost half of the entire population of the Sarawak State. A few major tribes are: the Kayan, Kenyah, Kejaman, Kelabit, Punan Bah, Tanjong, Sekapan and the Lahanan.

Evidence reveals that these island dwellers are descendants from the South-East Asian mainland.

The Penan tribe is the last surviving hunter-gatherer tribe and has received more international attention than other tribes. The group is best known for its practice of ‘molong’. Molong means ‘never taking more than necessary’. They are master hunters and are famed for their use of the blowpipe. The blowpipe is a lightweight weapon made from forest raw materials. It is filled with darts, pellets and other such light projectiles and then shot at the target by blowing through one end. The poisonous darts enable multiple shots at the same target or more than one kill in a single shot!

Sadly enough, this great tribe is now fighting a battle for survival. Malnutrition, health problems, and commercial dangers such as deforestation have forced a major section of the total population to choose a life of settling permanently. The remaining few still follow the traditional way of nomadic lifestyle.

The African tribal populations are skilled hunters and gatherers. Hunted animals form a major part of their diet and supply the much-needed protein. Hunting skills are perceived as a scale of one’s physical efficiency and hence is a matter of great prestige within the group, especially among the men.

Different tribes follow distinctly unique hunting patterns. The Efe people, for example, often hunt alone. They use bows and poison-tipped arrows for hunting down monkeys and small antelopes.

Other groups like the Mbuti make extensive use of nets to corner and capture animals.

The Bayaka are perhaps the best-known net hunters. They form a semi-circular wall using these nets, which sometimes extend even up to a kilometre in length. Bayaka women shout and make noises to stun and chase the animals into the nets. The animals thus cornered, are then killed by the men using spears.

The rainforest serves as a mother to these people, nourishing and nurturing them with her vital supplies. However, encroachment of outsiders has led to commercialization and increased demand for bushmeat even in the overseas market and urban centres. This demand has negatively altered the sustainability of such peaceful hunting practices. Many susceptible tribal men are often taken advantage of and made to work as hired trackers for elephant poachers or commercial hunters.

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For centuries, the tropical forests of Africa were considered treacherous and unfit for human inhabitation. However, the heart of the African rainforests in Zambia, Cameroon, Congo, and the Central African Republic has been a haven to some of the most celebrated tribal groups of hunters and gatherers. The most representative of these groups are the Mbuti, the Twa, the Baka, and the Aka, collectively called Pygmies, which means ‘dwarf’.

Pygmies are distinctly short, the tallest being the Mbuti tribe, with a height not more than 1.5 metres! Surprisingly, anthropologists opine that this shortness is a boon rather than a curse! The smaller body mass helps them to dissipate body heat better and with great agility within the rough forest terrains. These tribes also have better digestive systems than the sub-Saharan people.

The African tribes generally live in groups of 15-60 people, hunting and gathering wild fruits, vegetables, and ‘liquid gold’ - honey. These ‘children of the wild’ have long identified their souls with the forest and its mysterious hidden language. Their in-depth knowledge of plants and animals makes it easy to obtain wild food and natural medicines for various ailments.

Pygmies are nomadic. They migrate across lands in response to resource availability. This dispersal of the relatively small tribes across great distances has resulted in lower population density.

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The African continent with its 54 countries is home to about 3000 tribes, including the many tribes of Pygmies living in the rainforests. Together they form a major part of the total African population.

The influence of these indigenous human races on global civilization and its culture is tremendous. The African forest tribes live a unique nomadic life. They build temporary camps which have close access to nearby villages. The area chosen is cleared of its undergrowth and thickets, but the trees are kept intact. This surrounding tree canopy provides protection and shade from the scorching tropical sun.

Bushmeat, wild honey, and forest products are traded for metal goods, fabric, vegetables, and manioc (a staple food) from these neighbouring villages. Women function as gatherers, collecting forest produces with baskets on their backs. Bushmeat and honey are hunted by the men of the tribe. Honey is the most sought-after ‘liquid gold’, especially among the Mbuti. Men climb great heights in search of beehives. The bees are then chased away tactfully by smoking wood.

Huts resemble the igloos of the Arctic, but the domed roof and walls are not made of ice, but of intricately woven saplings and leaves!

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Fish breathe in water and animals breathe on land, is an age-old saying. The Arapaima fish, however, has something entirely different to say!

The Arapaima is an air-breathing fish that plies the Rainforest Rivers of South America’s Amazon Basin and nearby lakes and swamps. Acknowledged as one of the largest of all freshwater fish, these giants are fondly called by the name ‘paiche’ or ‘pirarucu’ and you will soon know why.

Though it is believed to grow up to a whopping 15 feet in length, the most common sightings measure an average length of six feet and a weight of about 91 kilogrammes!

The Arapaima has a striking appearance that cannot be mistaken for anything else. The head is tapered and has a copperish-green tint. The mouth is upturned and the streamlined body is scaly and black with a white centre. Arapaimas have an outstandingly red dorsal fin that stretches from front to back giving it the local name ‘pirarucu’ meaning ‘red fish’. The Arapaimas have to ‘gulp’ in the air every ten minutes and so inhabit the shallow depths just below the water surface. These ‘gulps’ which sound more like a cough, can be heard kilometres away!

These voracious predators are mainly fish hunters. They also eat fruits, seeds, insects, lizards, birds, and even small primates dangling on low-lying branches!

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Orang-utans are great apes indigenous to the tropical rainforests of the Sumatran and Bornean islands. Of the three species identified so far, the Bornean type flourishes across the width and breadth of the Bornean Island and the Sumatran and Tapanuli species in Northern Sumatra.

It is easy to recognize an orang-utan from other primates by its red fur coat. They resemble apes in their shape. The arms are disproportionately longer and more agile than the legs. Orang-utans can touch their ankles without bending even a bit! Can you do that?

These arboreal primates possess excellent cognitive abilities similar to gorillas and chimpanzees and are slightly smaller than the former.

Orang-utans are known as the ‘gardeners of the forest’. They play the role of stakeholders and are vital in seed dispersal and forest growth.

Arboreal in nature, they seldom come down unless absolutely necessary. They are often attacked and killed by leopards, tigers and crocodiles. However, the most significant threat arises from habitat loss due to road development, timber trade, and commercialized agricultural activities.

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The clouded leopard, named for its spotted coat, is one of the most ancient of cat species. They are closely related to great cats like the lion, and are slightly bigger than domestic cats. But despite all these similarities, the clouded leopard can hardly roar!

Clouded leopards plod the lowland rainforests that range across Nepal, Bangladesh, and eastern India and extend to Sumatra and Borneo. They have been sighted across dry woodlands and swampy terrains as well. The Bornean clouded leopards are more robust than the others. The reason behind this is the absence of tigers and other leopards in the region.

When it comes to climbing trees, clouded leopards are top-notch and often outdo other cat species. The large paws and sharp claws aid in better grip around the tree. These skilled climbers can also be seen hanging upside down from branches. Their bodies come with long tails and relatively short legs.

Despite their love for climbing trees, the clouded leopards prefer hunting on land. They feast on deer, monkeys, pigs, squirrels, birds, and even little squirrels.

Apart from these known facts, much remains to be learnt about them. They are seldom seen in the wild and are considered a vulnerable species.

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You have heard much about the Australian kangaroos that leap and bounce on land. But what about their arboreal cousins, the tree kangaroos?

The tree kangaroo shares the common physical traits of kangaroos and lemurs and inhabits the lowlands and mountainous rainforests of Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Australia. A total of fourteen species of tree kangaroos have been identified so far.

Their life on trees has enabled them to adapt better. The species has developed strengthened forelimbs and shorter legs to boost better and faster climbing. They weigh up to 14.5 kg and grow to a length of around 90 cm. Tree kangaroos wear a chestnut-brown coat adorned by two golden stripes on the back. Hence, the animal also goes by the name, ‘the golden-mantled tree kangaroo’.

Shreds of evidence reveal that kangaroos, wallabies, and the tree kangaroos are closely related marsupials descending from the same ancestors called macropods. Scientists believe that macropods were essentially tree-dwelling animals that existed millions of years ago.

Illegal poaching and habitat destruction have led to a massive decline in the total population of this plant-eating marsupial.

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Rainforests are found all over the world — in West and Central Africa, South and Central America, Indonesia, Southeast Asia and Australia — on every continent except Antarctica. They are vitally important, producing most of the oxygen we breathe and providing habitat for half of the planet's flora and fauna.

Rainforests are critically important to the well-being of our planet. Tropical rainforests encompass approximately 1.2 billion hectares (3 billion acres) of vegetation and are sometimes described as the Earth’s thermostat. 

Rainforests produce about 20% of our oxygen and store a huge amount of carbon dioxide, drastically reducing the impact of greenhouse gas emissions. Massive amounts of solar radiation are absorbed, helping regulate temperatures around the globe. Taken together, these processes help to stabilize Earth’s climate. 

Rainforests also help maintain the world’s water cycle. More than 50% of precipitation striking a rainforest is returned to the atmosphere by evapotranspiration, helping regulate healthy rainfall around the planet. Rainforests also store a considerable percentage of the world’s freshwater, with the Amazon Basin alone storing one-fifth. 

Rainforests provide us with many products that we use every day. Tropical woods such as teak, balsa, rosewood, and mahogany are used in flooring, doors, windows, boatbuilding, and cabinetry. Fibers such as raffia, bamboo, kapok, and rattan are used to make furniture, baskets, insulation, and cord. Cinnamon, vanilla, nutmeg, and ginger are just a few spices of the rainforest. The ecosystem supports fruits including bananas, papayas, mangos, cocoa and coffee beans. 

Rainforests also provide us with many medicinal products. According to the U.S. National Cancer Institute, 70% of plants useful in the treatment of cancer are found only in rainforests. Rainforest plants are also used in the creation of muscle relaxants, steroids, and insecticides. They are used to treat asthma, arthritis, malaria, heart disease, and pneumonia. The importance of rainforest species in public health is even more incredible considering that less than one percent of rainforest species have been analyzed for their medicinal value. 

Even rainforest fungi can contribute to humanity’s well-being. A mushroom discovered in the tropical rainforest of Ecuador, for example, is capable of consuming polyurethane—a hard, durable type of plastic used in everything from garden hoses to carpets to shoes. The fungi can even consume the plastic in an oxygen-free environment, leading many environmentalists and businesses to invest in research to investigate if the fungi can help reduce waste in urban landfills. 

Credit : National Geographic 

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Indonesia’s rainforests are home to some of the highest levels of biological diversity in the world.  Many sources credit Indonesia as the most species rich country on earth. Spread over 18,000 islands, Indonesia contains the world’s third largest area of rainforest after the Amazon and Africa’s Congo Basin.

Tragically, the rapid loss of Indonesia’s biologically wealthy rainforests is driving in-numerable species to the very edge of survival. Only decisive action and a paradigm shift towards meaningful conservation commitments by industry and the Indonesian government will prevent a catastrophic epidemic of extinctions in the coming decades. RAN’s strategic involvement in Indonesian forest issues is aimed at ushering in just such a sea change in the status quo. Please join us to ensure our work is not too late.

Incredibly, with just 1 percent of the Earth’s land area, Indonesia’s rainforests contain 10 percent of the world’s known plant species, 12 percent of mammal species – including endangered orangutans and critically endangered Sumatran tigers and rhinos – and 17 percent of all known bird species.

And there is still much to be discovered.  The Indonesian Ministry of the Environment estimates that more than half of Indonesia’s species are still unrecorded.

Indonesia has more species of mammal than any other nation, an incredible 515 species by most counts. Unfortunately, Indonesia also leads the world in the number of threatened mammals at 135 species, which is nearly a third of all of its native mammals.

Credit : Rainforest Action Network

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In the wild, the rubber tree will grow to heights of 100 to 130 feet, and can live up to 100 years. Its most famous feature is the milky white sap, known as latex, which flows freely from the tree when a sliver of bark is removed. A rubber tree, also referred to as rubberwood, can be tapped for latex once it reaches approximately six years of age. In order to reproduce, the fruit of the rubberwood burst open when ripe, scattering its many seeds in an area spanning up to 100 feet from the tree.

Hevea brasiliensis is a species of rubberwood that is native to rainforests in the Amazon region of South America, including Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. These trees are generally found in low-altitude moist forests, wetlands, riparian zones, forest gaps, and disturbed areas. It is a quick growing tree, often the first to establish itself when a gap in the canopy is produced but may be shaded out as more trees fill in the canopy opening. Today, commercially-produced rubber can also be found throughout much of Southeast Asia and Western Africa.

First discovered by the ancient Olmec, Maya, and Aztec, the latex sap from the rubber tree was once used to make rubber balls, to waterproof clothes, and even to form homemade shoes. Today, the latex sap from the rubber tree is still used in the modern processing of rubber and is often a substantial source of income for indigenous populations.

Credit : Rainforest Alliance 

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Each plant grows one bunch per year. A bunch can be made of up to 200 bananas. It is grouped in double row clusters. Each cluster is known as a hand and consists of 10 to 20 bananas. When harvested, the hands are usually cut into smaller hands of 4 to 6 for easier packing. An individual banana is known as a finger.

A banana plant only produces one bunch of bananas. When it’s time to harvest, the plants stem (or technically called it’s stool) is cut down. An off shoot emerges from the bottom and this is called a sucker. A new plant emerges from this sucker and it will produce a new bunch of bananas usually within 12 to 18 months depending on the climate. In Coffs Harbour, it is 18 months. The stool is cut into small pieces and usually left on the ground to act as a mulch.

Bananas are considered mature 3 to 6 months after the bell has flowered. They are harvested whilst the bananas are still green with just a hint of barely noticeable yellow. At this stage they are still hard and do not have any noticeable angular ribs. They are then taken to a packing room where they are cut into smaller hands, then washed before being stored in a packing room or being sent to the supermarkets where they will ripen naturally.

Credit : The Root Cause 

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The Amazon River dolphin averages about 6.5 feet in length. They come in all shades of pink, from a dull gray-pink, to rosy colored pink, to a bright pink like that of the flamingo. This color variation is due to the clarity of the water in which the dolphin lives; the darker the water, the pinker the dolphin will be. The sun’s rays cause the dolphins to lose their pink pigmentation. Murky water helps to protect the dolphin’s bright hue. These animals are also known to flush to a bright pink when excited. There are several anatomical differences between the Amazon River dolphin and other types of dolphins. For one, Amazon River dolphins are able to turn their necks from side to side while most species of dolphin cannot. This trait coupled with their ability to paddle forward with one flipper while paddling backward with the other helps them maneuver when the river floods. These dolphins will actually swim up over the flooded land and their flexibility helps them to navigate around trees. Additional characteristics that set these dolphins apart from other species are molar-like teeth that allow them to chew their prey and bristle-like hairs at the ends of their snouts that help them search for food on the muddy river bottoms.

The Amazon River dolphin can be found in the Amazon River system as well as the Orinoco River system. These river systems flow throughout South America, specifically in the countries of Brazil, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Guyana and Peru.

Amazon River dolphins feast on over 50 types of fish as well as crustaceans found on the river bottom and the occasional turtle.

Credit : Rainforest Alliance 

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