My Science School

The Amer Fort

The fort is located in Amer, which was the capital of the kingdom before Jaipur. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, this majestic fort houses gardens, palaces, halls and temples. Situated atop a hill, one needs to undertake a steep climb to visit the fort.

The Diwan-e-Aam and the Ganesh Pole, both pillared halls, are popular in the fort. The Sukh Niwas and Jas Mandir gardens are also a sight to behold.

The Hawa Mahal

Also known as the Palace of Winds, this was designed by Ustad Lal Chand and built by Maharaja Sawai Pratap Singh in 1799 A.D. Designed in the form of Krishna’s crown, resembling a honeycomb, there are 953 small windows (Jharokhas) in the palace. It was built to let the royal ladies view the streets without being seen by outsiders.

Jaigarh Fort

Constructed by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II in 1726 A.D, the Jaigarh Fort is located on a cape called ‘Cheel ka Teela’ in the Aravali mountain range. It was built with the vision of securing the Amer Fort from enemy attacks. The fort houses royal residences, gardens, water reservoirs, and an arsenal among others. The Jai Ban, a mounted cannon on wheels, is the largest in the country.

Jantar Mantar

A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Jantar Mantar in Jaipur is the biggest among Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II’s five observatories. Built with stone and marble, the instruments at the site stand testimony to the advancement of Indian astronomy in the late medieval era.

The Jal Mahal

Also known as the Water Palace, the Jal Mahal is situated in the middle of Man Sagar Lake in Jaipur. The palace was renovated in the 18th Century by Maharaja Jai Singh II and used as a hunting lodge.

One can hire a boat from the shore to reach the palace. Inside the palace are decorated hallways and a garden called Chameli Bagh.

 

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The capital and the largest city of the state of Rajasthan, India, Jaipur was founded by Maharaja Swami Jai Singh II on November 18, 1727. Believed to be the first planned city in India, Jaipur was designed by the king himself who was assisted by Vidyadhar Bhattacharya, a scholar in Mathematics and Science from Bengal. To design the city, Vidyadhar referred to ancient Indian literature on astronomy and books by Ptolemy and Euclid, both Greek mathematicians.

The principles of Vastu Shastra, a traditional Indian system of architecture, were also followed during the design of the city.

Construction of the major palaces and roads in the city took nearly four years.

Since it was meant to be the kingdom’s capital, huge walls were constructed around the city with seven gates. This earned Jaipur the name ‘the walled city’.

The city itself was divided into nine blocks. Two of these blocks consisted of the state buildings and palaces while the remaining seven were allotted to the general public.

When the Prince of Wales visited the city in 1878, the whole city was painted pink to welcome him. Thus the name ‘the pink city’ came into being. To retain the charm of the historic era, even today all the palaces and the state buildings of the city are painted in pink.

The Creative City

Apart from its architecture, Jaipur is known for its arts and crafts. In 2015, the city was added to UNESCO’s Creative Cities Network as a City of Crafts and Folk Art. In the 18th Century, Jaipur was called the House of the 36 Industries (Chattis Karkhanas) for being an important trade centre that was largely supported by crafts and folk art. In honour of this period, today, specific streets and markets in the city are dedicated to each of these industries.

 

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The Indus Valley Civilisation existed between 5000 BCE and 1500 BCE in the northwestern part of India. When it declined, its people started moving towards east and south. The script that was used by the people of this civilization has been termed the Indus script. Experts have speculated that it could be that of a Dravidian language.

Now, the ‘graffiti marks’ on the artefacts obtained from the Keezhadi excavation site point to a link between the scripts of the Indus Valley Civilization and Tamil-Brahmi. According to the report: One kind of script that survived in the time period between the disappearance of the Indus script and the emergence of the Brahmi script has been referred to as graffiti by the scholars. These marks, they believe, have evolved or transformed from the Indus script and served as the precursor to the Brahmi script. Therefore, these graffiti cannot be dismissed as mere scratches. Besides, like the Indus script, this also could not be deciphered till date. Among the scripts available with India, the Indus script is considered to be the earliest. After the decline of the script and before the emergence of the Brahmi script, there seemed to be a gap. Researchers note that this graffiti could fill that gap.

 

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The Sangam period refers to a period in the history of ancient Tamil NADU, Kerala, the southern parts of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, and northern Sri Lanka, spanning from 6th century BCE to 1st century CE. It is known for scholarly congregations in and around the city of Madurai. The period is considered the golden age of Tamil literature and culture as many of its epics were composed during this time.

Well-versed in city planning

The report highlights the supposedly high standard of living in the Sangam era. It talks about the excavation having unearthed well-laid floors made of fine clay, along with roof tiles. The fine groove impressions on the roof may have been used to drain water, the report says. Other excavations include a terracotta pipe that might have run through several quadrants over a stretch of many metres before ending in a soak jar. The pipe and the soak jar attest to the advanced system of the people who lived here. Another brick structure, which looked like a tank/through, had an inlet and an outlet. A covered drain was found below this. A small structure with a stone slab on top, perhaps meant for washing clothes, was also one of the artefacts excavated.

 

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• The Sangam era could be 300 years older than thought. Cultural deposits unearthed date back to a period between 6th Century BCE and 1st Century CE. This is the first time the date has been officially announced by the TNAD.


• The Keezhadi site provides overwhelming evidence of the presence of an urban settlement. The artefacts suggest that urbanization took place on the Vaigai plains in Tamil Nadu around 6th century BCE, making it contemporary to the Gangetic plain civilization. The discovery of brick structures with classical features such as platforms, ring wells, rectangular tanks, square tanks with extended structures, and channels vouches for the presence of an urban culture there.


• Sangam people may have participated in recreational activities – as many as 110 dice made of ivory have been unearthed.


• The Keezhadi findings push back the date of the Tamil-Brahmi script to another century, i.e., 6th century BCE.


• Fifty six Tamil-Brahmi inscribed potsherds have been recovered from the site of excavation undertaken by the TNAD alone. These suggest that the residents of the Sangam era attained literacy or learned the art of writing as early as 6th century BCE.


• There are also other markings alongside the Tamil-Brahmi symbols which apparently suggest a connection with the Indus Valley civilization. Artefacts with ‘graffiti’ or ‘markings’ establish a possible link between the scripts of the Indus Valley Civilisation and Tamil Brahmi, which is the precursor to modern Tamil.


• Skeletal fragments of animals suggest that animals were used predominantly for agricultural purposes.


• Pottery specimens confirm that water containers and cooking vessels were shaped out of locally available materials.

 

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Excavations at Keezhadi, an archaeological site in Sivaganga district, near Madurai, Tamil Nadu, have brought to light significant details about the Sangam era. The report on the fourth phase of the archaeological survey, undertaken at the site in 2018, was released by the Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department (TNAD) recently. It described the findings a turning point in the cultural historiography of the ancient Sangam era.

In various phases

As many as five phases of excavations have been carried out in Keezhadi and the sixth one will begin soon. The first three phases were conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) and the fourth and the fifth phases are under the ambit of the TNAD.

In 2013-2014, the ASI began exploration in Tamil Nadu, along the bands of the river Vaigai. More than 290 sites were identified in Theni, Dindigul, Madurai, Sivaganga and Ramanathapuram districts for excavation began in 2015. The site began yielding rich artefacts such as potsherds with Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions, deep terracotta pots, white-painted black ware, black and red pottery and beads made of semiprecious stones. Further excavations at the Pallichanthai Thidal in Keezhadi pointed to an ancient civilization that thrived on the banks of the Vaigai, Political parties in Tamil Nadu urged the ASI to publish the findings of the first three phases of excavation.

 

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Takshashila had great influence on the Hindu culture and Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya and assisted in the founding of the Mauryan empire. The Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics) of Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself.

According to the Buddhist text Mahavamsa Tika, Chandragupta and Chanakya raised an army by recruiting soldiers from many places after the former completed his education at Taxila. Chanakya made Chandragupta the leader of the army.The Digambara Jain text Parishishtaparvan states that this army was raised by Chanakya with coins he minted and an alliance formed with Parvataka. According to Justin, Chandragupta organized an army. Early translators interpreted Justin's original expression as "body of robbers", but states Raychaudhuri, the original expression used by Justin may mean mercenary soldier, hunter, or robber.

The Buddhist Mahavamsa Tika and Jain Parishishtaparvan records Chandragupta's army unsuccessfully attacking the Nanda capital. Chandragupta and Chanakya then began a campaign at the frontier of the Nanda empire, gradually conquering various territories on their way to the Nanda capital. He then refined his strategy by establishing garrisons in the conquered territories, and finally besieged the Nanda capital Pataliputra. There Dhana Nanda accepted defeat, and was killed by Buddhist accounts, or deposed and exiled by Hindu accounts.

 

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Taxila and Peshawar, ancient Gandhara’s chief cities, were important cultural centres. From the 1st century BCE to the 6th–7th century CE, Gandhara was the home of a distinctive art style that was a mixture of Indian Buddhist and Greco-Roman influences.

Taxila, Sanskrit Takshashila, ancient city of northwestern Pakistan, the ruins of which are about 22 miles (35 km) northwest of Rawalpindi. Its prosperity in ancient times resulted from its position at the junction of three great trade routes: one from eastern India, described by the Greek writer Megasthenes as the “Royal Highway”; the second from western Asia; and the third from Kashmir and Central Asia. When these routes ceased to be important, the city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed by the Huns in the 5th century CE. Taxila was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1980.

 

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The world’s most widely consumed beverage, all tea comes from the tropical plant known as Camellia Senensis. The tea plant grows best in a warm climate with long sunlit days, cool nights and an abundance of rainfall. Tea plants grow at altitudes ranging from sea level to 7,000 feet and on latitudes as far north as Turkey and as far south as Argentina. 

The tea story started in China around 2750 BC. During this time, the tea plant was found to have a number of medicinal properties. Legend says that an Emperor by the name of Shen Nung was sitting in the shade of a wild tea tree, boiling some drinking water, when a breeze blew a few leaves from the tree into the pot and gave the water a flavor that he found delicious. He experimented further and found it to have medicinal properties, as well as a pleasing flavor. He urged the Chinese people to cultivate the plant for the benefit of the entire nation. Over time, he has become the Legendary Father of Tea.

Although the first tea was discovered in China, several other areas of the world now contribute to the overall tea harvest. The first tea used in England originated in China, and it wasn’t until the 19th century that tea growing spread to Formosa and that indigenous tea was discovered in Assam. In 1839, the first Indian tea was sold in London. Around 1191, Japanese Zen priests brought tea seed back from studying abroad in China and began cultivating them in the southernmost part of Japan. The first tea in Africa was planted in the Cape in 1687, but did not progress until the latter part of the 19th century. The 20th century has seen the spread of tea in Africa, notably in Kenya, Malawi and Tanzania.

 

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Built between roughly A.D. 1113 and 1150, and encompassing an area of about 500 acres (200 hectares), Angkor Wat is one of the largest religious monuments ever constructed. Its name means "temple city."

Originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, it was converted into a Buddhist temple in the 14th century, and statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork

The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once the capital of the Khmer Empire. This city contains hundreds of temples. The population may have been over 1 million people. It was easily the largest city in the world until the Industrial Revolution. 

Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated. One question is whether the ashes of Suryavarman II were interred in the monument, perhaps in the same chamber where the deposits were found. If that were the case it would give the temple a funerary meaning.

Eleanor Mannikka has noted that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the north-south axis of the central tower's chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is not an accident. "In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is also placed along the axis of the earth," she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew the Earth was round.

 

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Cambodia has a rich and fascinating history. The first humans in Cambodia were Stone Age hunters and gatherers. However farming was introduced into Cambodia about 2,300 BC. The first farmers in Cambodia used stone tools but from about 1,500 BC the Cambodians used tools and weapons made from bronze. By about 500 BC they had learned to use iron.

The first civilization in the area arose about 150 AD in the Mekong River delta in South Vietnam. This civilization was known to the Chinese who called it Fu-nan.

While Fu-nan was trading with the Chinese Cambodian society grew more sophisticated. Settlements grew larger. So did kingdoms. By the beginning of the 7th century AD all of Cambodia was highly civilized.

At first Cambodia was divided into rival states. However at the beginning of the 9th century a king named Jayavarman II founded the Khmer Empire in Cambodia.

During the 16th century Cambodian power continued to decline. At the end of the century Cambodia fell under Thai suzerainty (loose control). In 1594 the Thais captured the capital. After that they dominated the region.

From the middle of the 17th century the power of Vietnam grew. In the early 17th century the Cambodians controlled parts of what is now South Vietnam. They held a port called Prey Nokor. (Later it was renamed Saigon). In the late 17th century Prey Nokor fell under Vietnamese rule.

During the 18th century Cambodia found itself squeezed between two powerful neighbors, Thailand and Vietnam. The Thais invaded Cambodia several times in the 18th century and in 1772 they destroyed Phnom Phen. In the last years of the 18th century the Vietnamese also invaded Cambodia. The Cambodian king was forced to look to the Thais for protection. In return Thailand took north-west Cambodia.

Today Cambodia is still a poor country but there is every reason to be optimistic about its future. In the early years of the 21st Century the Cambodian economy grew rapidly. Today the economy of Cambodia is growing strongly. The textiles industry in Cambodia is booming so is tourism. Cambodia is growing more and more prosperous.

 

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It was the 10th century AD, in the Kingdom of Dali. Lying in the south-eastern foothills of the Himalayas, in what is now known as China’s Yunnan province this independent kingdom was established by the Bai people – ethnic cousins of the Tai people (after which Thailand was named), the Shan people in Burma, and even the Ahoms of Assam!

The Dali kings believed they were descendants of the Buddhist Mauryan king Ashoka, and saw themselves as part of a brotherhood of Buddhist kingdoms that spanned from India, to Burma, Thailand and Vietnam. The Dali kings were very Indianised indeed, and apparently called their kingdom ‘Gandhara’ – that ancient renowned centre for Buddhist learning that lay thousands of kilometres west in the Swat region of Pakistan! Even the olden Burmese name for Yunnan is Gandhara.

Mad about Magadha

The Dali kings seemed to want to recreate the holy land of the Buddha’s homeland in their kingdom, thousands of kilometres away, and started naming many places after those in Magadha, modern Bihar. One of their cities was named Mithila, where the Buddha had once lived...in modern Bihar. A cave on the side of Lake Dali was called Kukkutapada Cave, after a famous Buddhist pilgrimage site in India. They did not stop there, and built a stupa next to this cave, which claimed to hold the relics of the Buddha’s favourite disciple, Ananda, though how they would have gotten hold of this 1500 years after his death later will forever remain a mystery.

As the early Americans would go on to name cities after their original counterparts in Europe, it seems that the Dali kings tried to recreate a Buddhist homeland in Yunnan by naming sites and cities after those in India. The mind boggles! The Persian historian Rashid of Din writes that these kings of Gandhara would actually refer to themselves as maharaja.

The Mongols Arrive

By 1253 AD, the ferocious Mongol armies of Kublai Khan armies had conquered this powerful independent kingdom, and its former capital, Dali, became a tributary to the Mongol Yuan dynasty. However, when the Mings topped the Yuans over a century later, they crushed Dali in 1381 AD after a fierce battle, as the kingdom had helped the Yuans. Dali now became just a remote outpost of the Ming empire. Over the centuries its people and nobility assimilated with Chinese culture and started becoming officials at the Ming court.

Happy Holi!

Though Yunnan is very much a part of China today, the Bai people still lives there and celebrates many Buddhist festivals. They, along with other neighbouring areas like Burma, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia celebrate a unique festival every April. It is called the Water Festival. It falls on the traditional New Years celebrations of these regions, and people celebrate by gently and delicately splashing scented water on one another. It bears a startling resemblance to the Hindu festival of Holi, held around the same time every year, where Indians not-so-gently hurl coloured water (and other substances) at each other! In fact, in Thailand, this festival is known as Songkran, which directly comes from the Sanskrit word ‘Sankranti’, meaning ‘astrological passage’.

 

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Here are some important buildings one can find inside the Galle Fort

Dutch Reformed Church

Also known as Groote Kerk, this church is located within the Galle Fort. Originally built by the Portuguese in 1640, the church was renovated by the Dutch around 1755.

The floor of the church is made of gravestones dedicated to the memories of parishioners who passed away centuries earlier. The lawn of the church is open and has a pebble pathway to enable visitors to look at the crumbling tombstones erected around the lawn.

A church organ from 1760 still sits in the building.

Old Dutch Hospital, Galle

Built by the Dutch as a hospital, this is one of the oldest buildings in the Galle Fort area. The building was used as the Galle Town Hall by the Sri Lankan government but due to restriction of space over time, the offices moved elsewhere. Today, after extensive renovation, the building is being used as a shopping and dining precinct.

Galle Lighthouse

This onshore lighthouse is Sri Lanka’s oldest light station dating back to 1848. The original lighthouse, built by the British, was located 100 metres from the current site. However, it was destroyed by fire in 1934 and the existing lighthouse was erected in 1939. It is located within the walls of the Galle fort and is a popular tourist attraction.

Galle Clock Tower

Also known as the Anthonisz Memorial Clock Tower, this clock tower was constructed in 1831. It was paid for through public subscriptions by the people of Galle in recognition of Dr. P. D. Anthonisz, a well-known doctor. Roughly four-storeys high, the clock tower is situated immediately inside the fort ramparts.

National Maritime Museum

First opened to the public in 1992, the museum is located in a Dutch Warehouse that dates back to 1671. Originally specialising in the flora and fauna of the sea, the display at the museum expanded over time to include underwater artefacts, sea-faring, maritime trade and relics retrieved from the 20-odd maritime archaeological sites around Galle.

While the building housing the museum survived the 2004 tsunami, the adjoining UNESCO Maritime Archaeology Unit was completely destroyed. Three years after the tsunami, the maritime museum reopened to the public.

 

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Situated nearly 100 km away from the Sri Lanka capital city Colombo, Galle is a seaside town known for its fortifications and colonial buildings.

Galle came into prominence following its capture by the Portuguese in the 15th Century from the Sinhala kings. Soon after, the Portuguese erected the first fortification in the city which was a single wall fronted by a moat which extended from the sea to the harbour.

While the Portuguese were the first colonial power to capture Galle, they were soon defeated by the Dutch, who captured the fort after a four-day siege.

It was under the Dutch rule that Galle witnessed the height of its development. The Dutch heavily fortified the city in their architectural style. They built a rampart around the city with a double wall. The Dutch added close to ten bastions all over the fort which went on till about the early 18th Century.

The Dutch established public administration buildings, warehouses and residential quarters among others inside the fort.

The British took over the fort from the Dutch in 1796, after they captured Colombo. And Sri Lanka remained a British colony till it received its independence in 1948. Galle lost its prominence during this period, as the British developed Colombo as their capital and main port.

Today, Galle is one of the best examples of a fortified city built by European in South and Southeast Asia.

The fort has withstood the test of time and survived the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami that destroyed most of the town, including the famous Galle International Cricket Stadium.

 

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Aurangzeb’s death marked the beginning of end for the Mughal Empire. Since the kings who ascended the throne after him were inefficient, the Sayyid Brothers saw an opportunity in the ensuring chaos.

“Shah banaye, Shah giraye, Abdulla, Hussain Ali.” (They make kings and then make them fall- Abdullah and Hussain Ali) Street song about the Sayyid Brothers

It was 1713, just six years after Aurangzeb’s death. After his son Bahadur Shah’s brief reign, throne, totally controlled by his wife Lal Kunwar, who had been a courtsan. Jahandar Shah spent all his time partying and spending exorbitant amounts of money, and was such a bad ruler, that some historians dubbed him the ‘Lord of Misrule’! in this situation of near anarchy, Prince Farrukhsiyar, Jahandar Shah’s nephew, began roaming around the country trying to get support to become emperor instead.

Farrukhsiyar seeks support

In came the Sayyid Brothers, Abdulla Khan and Hussain Ali Khan Barha – men in their forties, from an old aristocratic military family. When Frrukhsiyar landed up in Patna, the Sayyids weren’t initially sympathetic towards him, but eventually agreed to support him after an imploring meeting between their mothers and Farrukhsiyar’s mother!

The Sayyids rustled up a group of malcontents, men who felt sighted or overlooked by the current emperor and built up support for their cause. Money for their mission came from raiding royal caravans as well as the usual taxes, and forced loans.

No money to pay the troops

Even as news of this rival army reached Jahandar Shah, he couldn’t be bothered to mount out a defence. As the Sayyid’s army was about to reach Dealhi, Jahandar Shah finally bestirred himself; but there was a slight problem. During the revelries of the past year, Mughal imperial troops hadn’t been paid even once. There was little money as much had been frittered away on frivolities like massive weekly ‘illuminations” of Delhi fort and river banks – like Diwali every week, for a full year!

Anyway, gold vessels from Akbar’s time were melted, then jeweled objects, then fine clothes and hangings taken. Still the cash fell short. Finally, the gold-roofed of the palace were broken and distributed to royal soldiers.

Jahandar Shah loses

Nothing worked, and Jahandar Shah lost, was captured, and duly strangled. He was the first Mughal emperor to be so unceremoniously deposed by Mughal nobles, but an awful tradition was set.

The new emperor Farrukhsiyar’s reign started with such a flurry of strangulations and executions of the defeated groups that terror started spreading amongst these nobles. Every time they were summoned for an audience with the Emperor, they took formal farewells of their families, just in case they didn’t manage to return home!

The Sayyid brothers grasped all power and high positions for themselves and their family and friends. Farrukhsiyar gradually became influenced by other factions at court, and turned against the Sayyids, and started planning on to get rid of them.

Here comes the twist

A tense see-saw state of affairs remained for the next few years. Hussain Ali Khan was sent off to “retake the Deccan” from the growing might of the Marathas, and Farrukhsiyar secretly encouraged the Marathas to kill him off! Hussain Ali Khan struck a deal with them instead and started marching towards Delhi as the head of a large army, theoretically to “attend to the emperor.” He was escorted by a large troop of Marathas!

Time to get rid of Farrukhsiyar

Farrukhsiyar was in a state of terror and briefly reconciled with the Sayyids, but once again tried to betray them the second he had a chance. Finally the Sayyids decided to get rid of him. When the palace was taken by the Sayyid’s soldiers, Farrukhsiyar took refuge in the women’s quarters of the palace and refused to step out, swearing to take revenge, while being guarded by a contingent of female Turki bodyguards!

The Sayyid brothers picked at random from the harem another prince, Rafi-ud-Darjat, a first cousin of Farrukhsiyar. They marched him off in his ordinary clothes without jewellery or ornaments, packed him unceremoniously on the magnificent Peacock throne and declared him Emperor. This sorry state is what the magnificent ‘Grand Moguls’ had been reduced to!

Farrukhsiyar was roughly recovered from the harem and dragged, bareheaded and barefooted to be presented to the Sayyids, where he was blinded publicly with a hot needle. The maimed ex-Emperor was thrown into a dark and dark prison cell, where he was strangled after some days.

Puppet kings

The king makers’ new puppet emperor, Rafi-ud-Darjat was kept under firm guard. Even his meals were not served without the order of his tutor who was a distant Sayyid relative. The young Emperor however had a wasting disease and was hopelessly addicted to opium; he died in three months.

His brother Rafi-ud-Daulah was crowned the new Mughal emperor on the Peacock Throne as Shah Jahan II, in what was becoming a fine farce. Rafi-ud-Daulah was also a puppet, and every action was dictated by the Sayyid brothers. Now this new king turned out to be as sickly as the last, and equally addicted to opium. He gave up the habit after he took the throne (or was made shock of withdrawal. He died in four months as well.

Fall of the brothers

Well, the Sayyid brothers had many options to choose from, and next installed a 17-year old Muhammad Shah on the throne. This would prove very costly for them. The other court factions, the Turanis (Central Asians) and Iranis (Persians) finally united to get rid of them. The younger Sayyid was killed in battle, and the elder assassinated. The age of the Sayyid brothers was abruptly over by 1720.

To recap, it had been only 12 years since Aurangzeb’s death. Six Mughal emperors had already come and gone. After taking the throne in 1719, Muhammad Shah went on to rule for thirty years, during which he was known more for his pastimes than for his strong work ethic. He was bestowed the moniker of Muhammad Shah Rangeela, the colourful one. The Mughal empire was already in a shambles.

 

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