My Science School

The Holy Roman Empire standardised handwriting in the Latin alphabet. Emperor Charlemagne of the empire did not read or write but standardised handwriting across his empire so that people in different regions could all read the Bible. The name of this script, Carolingian, comes from Carolus, Latin form of the name of Charlemagne (also called Charles the Great). Minuscule in Latin means “smallish,” what we would today refer to as lowercase. It was used from AD 800-1200.

Uppercase and lowercase letters in our Latin alphabet copy elements from Carolingian minuscule. Carolingian minuscule also had rounded, connected letters, like insular script – but the serifs were shorter, and the letters simpler. Manuscripts written in Carolingian minuscule were easier to read because (a) the letters were joined well (b) words looked neat and lean and (c) there was space between the words.

 

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Before everyone began to read and write, most writing was done by the monks in monasteries who copied down texts by hand. The earliest forms of handwriting can be seen in these manuscripts. One such early form of handwriting is known as insular script, which originated in Ireland. Insular comes from the Latin insularis, “relating to an island,”Ireland, in this case. Insular script spread from Ireland throughout western Europe around AD 600-850.

In the insular script, letters in a word are generally rounded and connected by serifs (the little lines at the ends of letters). This script has been used in illuminated manuscripts such as The Book of Kells.

 

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When we write, we use the same alphabet. We make our letters stand straight, lean forward or backward, but the shape of the letter is the same. But each one has his/her won distinct handwriting. Handwriting experts tell us that our handwriting is like our signature, it is unique to us. Like the fingerprint, it marks us as special. Even when we type them out on a computer, we have a list of handwriting styles we can choose from. Mine is Liberation Serif. What is yours?

However, historically, there have been some common handwriting trends. After all, humans have been since the Bronze Age (C. 3300 – 300 BC). The Latin alphabet we use has been around since 700 BC. The trends were formed by the writing tools used, the words in the language and the shape of the alphabets.

 

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Did you know that merry-go-rounds, also called “gallopers”, or “flying horses” or, more commonly, “carousels,” have been around since 500 A.D.? At first they were used for war games and for training horsemen who practised swiping at each other with swords while sitting on the moving platforms. The round and round as well as the up and down movement made hitting each other difficult and prepared the cavalrymen for actual combat.

Carousels were at first kept secret by the European Kings who hid them inside their castles, so that their enemies did not get to preparation exercises.

It was much later that this top secret cavalry training equipment began to be used for entertainment!

 

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About the site

Antigua Naval Dockyard and Related Archaeological Sites consists of a group of buildings and structures in Gregorian-style, set within a walled enclosure. The dockyard and the related structures were built by the British as a strategic naval base in the battle for supremacy of the seas of the Caribbean between the European countries.

The dockyard offered shelter from the infamous hurricanes that the islands would often witness, making it ideal for repairing ships.

The British would not have been able to construct the dockyard and the related sites if not for the labour of generations of African slaves since the end of the 18th Century.

While many of the buildings and fortifications in the area are in ruins, the dockyard continues to function.

Nelson’s Dockyard

The Antigua Naval Dockyard is popularly known as Nelson’s Dockyard. The largest of Antigua’s National Parks, Nelson’s Dockyard is still used as a working dockyard for yachts and ships.

Nelson’s Dockyard was built by the British in the early 18th Century with the main aim of maintaining the British Royal Navy warships which were protecting Britain’s sugar-producing islands in the region.

The dockyard is named after Horatio Nelson, the British Hero of Trafalgar, who served as the captain of the H.M.S. Boreas. He was sent to Antigua by the British to enforce British laws, especially the Navigation Act, which barred foreign ships from trading with British colonies. This made him hugely unpopular with the local merchants, who were trading with the U.S. Nelson, who hated the place, spent most of his time there in the cramped quarters of his ship.

The British closed down the dockyard in 1889, after the sugar industry waned. In the years following its abandonment, Nelson’s Dockyard was battered by earthquakes and hurricanes. In the 1950s, the dockyard underwent major restoration and was officially named after Nelson.

The strategic advantage

 While the construction of the dockyard began as early as the 1720, its strategic importance increased when Britain lost the American War of Independence.

After its loss, the British had two enemies to protect its sugar-producing islands from – the U.S. and France. The British had to protect these islands as the sugar from the Caribbean was finding the Industrial Revolution and the development of Britain.

The deep narrow bays of the south coast of Antigua were the perfect spot for the British to build its dockyard. Surrounded by highlands that create a natural harbour, the location offered shelter from the hurricanes that often struck the Caribbean islands. Known as the English harbour, this gave Britain the advantage of retaining its fleet and repairing its ships while other countries had to send their fleet back during the hurricane season.

Antigua’s location also offered the British control over major sailing routes to and from the rich island countries.

Related sites

Apart from the dockyard itself, there are several fortifications and other buildings inside the dockyard that are part of the UNESCO heritage site.

Among these are the Clarence house, the Officer’s Quarters and the Senior Officer’s House built in the English Gregorian style but adapted to suit the climatic conditions of the Caribbean.

Shirley Heights Lookout, a military complex is a famous tourist spot offering panoramic views of the harbour. The complex is named after Sir Thomas Shirley, Governor of the Leeward Islands, who strengthened the island’s defences in 1781 by building this lookout.

Another site that was discovered only in 2010, after a hurricane uncovered well-preserved human remains, prompting for an extensive excavation project, is Galleon Beach. This former burial site for British sailors who fell victim to the yellow fever outbreaks, also falls within the boundaries of the Dockyard.

The Dockyard today

Offering many sites and activities for visitors to explore, Nelson’s Dockyard is today a popular tourist place.

The Dockyard Museum exhibits the Dockyard’s history and presents the current archaeological research on the island. There are several shops, hotels and marina businesses housed in the buildings in the dockyard, while outside the dockyard, one can hike to some of the historic forts such as Fort Charlotte and Fort George that dot the landscape.

 

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ANZAC stands for Australia and New Zealand Army Corps, formed during the First World War. The first major military action spearheaded by the ANZAC was the submarine landing on the Gallipoli peninsula (Turkey) on April25,1915.

Popular legend has it that, as a treat, the soldiers fighting in the war were sent a consignment of sweet biscuits made of oats, flour, soda bicarbonate, desiccated coconut, golden syrup, sugar and butter. The biscuits continued to be made and sold at charity events. These events were held to raise money for the war effort and for the war effort and for the soldiers. Today, they are commercially manufactured following the same basic recipe.

Anzac Day is observed every year on April 25 and is a public holiday in Australia and New Zealand and the biscuits are eaten as part of the ceremony.

Anzac tiles and Anzac wafers are two other kinds of hardtack or ship biscuits – they are extremely tough on the teeth ( they have to be softened before eating), but remain unspoiled for a very long time.

 

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Maheshwar is an old hub of textile weaving on Hand looms since 5th century. It has been producing India’s finest muslin and silk fabrics since then. But the credit for making Maheswar Sarees world known goes to Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar, which dates back to 18th century. Maharani Ahilya Bai Holkar wanted a Saree to be woven in her own town Maheshwar that shall be suitable for all weather use with the elegance of traditional Maheshwar fabric. Weavers across the country and various type of Zari from Surat were called and one master piece was designed by Maharani herself. The carvings on Maheshwar Fort inspired designs on Saree. Later on same technique to weave were adopted across the Maheshwar and modern Maheshwar Sarees came to in existence. In 1979, to create women employment and promoting the Maheshwar fabric, Holkars family founded an NGO Rehwa Society. Since then this NGO has been proficiently working towards their goals.

Today’s Maheshwari Saree is at par with modern fashion, where you will find comfort, colors, designs, fabric as per the latest trends along with the same legacy, richness and heritage which is attached to Maheshwari Sarees since centuries. These Sarees are woven in various compositions of yarns that can be only pure silk or only pure cotton or pure silk woven with pure cotton. Borders and Pallu on Saree are woven in Zari and colorful Resham. Still the designs on Sarees are inspired with Maheshwar fort.

 

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The Scindia family ruled Gwalior until India's independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, when the Maharaja Jivajirao Scindia acceded to the Government of India. Gwalior was merged with a number of other princely states to become the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat. George Jivajirao served as the state's rajpramukh, or appointed governor, from 28 May 1948 to 31 October 1956, when Madhya Bharat was merged into Madhya Pradesh.

Mahadaji was instrumental in resurrecting Maratha power in North India after the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761, and rose to become a trusted lieutenant of the Peshwa, leader of the Maratha Empire. Along with Madhavrao I and Nana Fadnavis, he was one of the three pillars of Maratha Resurrection. During his reign, Gwalior became the leading state in the Maratha Empire and one of the foremost military powers in India. After accompanying Shah Alam II in 1771 to Delhi, he restored the Mughals in Delhi and became the Vakil-ul-Mutlaq (Regent of the Empire)'. Mahadji Shinde's principal Advisors were all Shenvis.

 

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The Third Battle of Panipat took place on 14 January 1761, at Panipat, about 60 miles (95.5 km) north of Delhi between a northern expeditionary force of the Maratha Empire and a coalition of the King of Afghanistan, Ahmad Shah Durrani with two Indian Muslim allies—the Rohilla Afghans of the Doab, and Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Oudh. Militarily, the battle pitted the French-supplied artillery[4] and cavalry of the Marathas against the heavy cavalry and mounted artillery(zamburak and jizail) of the Afghans and Rohillas led by Ahmad Shah Durrani and Najib-ud-Daulah, both ethnic Pashtuns (the former is also known as Ahmad Shah Abdali). The battle is considered one of the largest fought in the 18th century,[5] and has perhaps the largest number of fatalities in a single day reported in a classic formation battle between two armies.

The Marathas had gained control of a considerable part of India in the intervening period (1712–1757). In 1758 they nominally occupied Delhi, captured Lahore and drove out Timur Shah Durrani, the son and viceroy of the Afghan ruler, Ahmad Shah Abdali. This was the high-water mark of Maratha expansion, where the boundaries of their empire extended north of the Sindhu River all the way down south to northern Kerala. This territory was ruled through the Peshwa, who talked of placing his son Vishwasrao on the Mughal throne. However, Delhi still remained under the control of Mughals, key Muslim intellectuals including Shah Waliullah and other Muslim clergies in India were frightened at these developments. In desperation they appealed to Ahmad Shah Abdali, the ruler of Afghanistan, to halt the threat.

 

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The Holkars came to prominence during the time of Maratha Peshwa Bajirao I (or Baji Rao). His able military commander, Malharrao Holkar, was the patriarch of this Holkar family. A dhangar (shepherd) peasant by caste, Malharba, as he was popularly known, rose through the Maratha ranks by stint of his valour and attained the rank of general in Peshwa Bajirao's army. He helped Bajirao in establishing Maratha supremacy in central and northern India along with the likes of his equally competent contemporaries such as Ranoji Scindia and Udaji Pawar.

Malharrao Holkar (born 1693-died 1766) was born in the village of Hol, near Jejuri, Pune, to one Khanduji Holkar of Vir.

Malharrao joined the Maratha cavalry at a young age and this brave youth soon impressed his peers. He was noticed by Peshwa Balaji Vishwanath and was gradually elevated to the rank of a commander.

He assisted the next peshwa, Bajirao I (son of Balaji Vishwanath), in his early years and soon became a part of the team that progressed north to establish Maratha hegemony. Malharrao was instrumental in Bajirao's successes in Malwa and was soon given the task of collecting revenue from that region.

 

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Maheshwar for me is the city of Rani Ahilya Bai Holkar. She moved the capital of Holkar’s from Indore to this place on the banks of Narmada River. This is where she ruled from, driving her strength from her faith in Shiva and Narmada. At this place, you are never far away from the Narmada.

It is an ancient town on the banks of Narmada River. In ancient Indian scriptures, it is mentioned as Mahishmati. Yes, the same name you might have heard in the blockbuster Bahubali. This is supposed to be a place where Ravan was held the prisoner for 6 months by the king Sahastrarjun. His temple can be seen at the RajRajeshwar temple complex. Both, our epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata mention Maheshwar. It was also a part of Avanti that we better known as Ujjain.

It is a small town, you can potentially do it in a day or two. The city revolves around the Maheshwar Fort with the Narmada flowing gently on its one side and the city emanating from its gates on the other. So, let us start our journey from the heart of this place.

 

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A twist of fate

The story of Ahilya begins thus. On his way back to his capital Indore in 1733, Malhar Rao, the Maratha ruler of Indore, spent the night in a small village. There he saw Ahilya, eight-year-old daughter of the village chief. Struck by her intelligence and her regal bearing, Malhar Rao decided to get her married to his only son, ten-year-old Khande Rao.

Malhar Rao gave Ahilya the education of a prince – not only in religious and secular texts, but also in the practice of arms, accounting, statecraft, strategy and administration. He was seldom in Indore as he ranged far and wide, raiding and conquering territories for the Marathas. He relied heavily on Ahilya for local administration. Ahilya was a workaholic, and soon gained a reputation for being extremely competent and fair.

When her husband died, Ahilya was held back from committing Sati by her father-in-law. After Malhar Rao’s death, Ahilya’s son Male Rao became the ruler but died within a year.

Checkmating raghoba

After Male Rao’s death, Ahilya, who had been the real ruler for years, decided to make it official. Horrified at the idea of a woman ruler, Raghoba, the uncle of the teenaged Peshwa and the de facto regent, decided to take back Indore directly under the rule of the Peshwa and moved towards it with 50,000 troops. He camped near Ujjain on the banks of the Shipra River. (A Peshwa is Prime Minister of the Maratha Empire.)

Ahilya decided to fight back on many fronts. She wrote to all the major Maratha Sardars like the Scindias and Gaikwads, reminding them of the favours they owed Malhar Rao. She wrote to Peshwa Madhav Rao. She readied her own troops.

Then she played a masterstroke. To paint Raghoba as an oppressor of widows, she got together about 500 women and formed a small army contigent, giving them some elementary battle training. She herself had her favourite elephant publicly readied for battle, with quivers of arrows placed on all four corners of the howdah.

Ahilya then wrote a letter to Raghoba, announcing her intention of fighting him with her contingent of women, and saying that he could only gain infamy battling with women; to win would be a dishonor, and to lose a still greater one.

Raghoba realized that he had bitten off more than he could chew. Instead of the cowed woman he had expected, he was facing armed women, Holkar troops, and a bombardment of letters from the Peshwa and Maratha Sardars asking him to desist! In an attempt to save face, he sent a message to Ahilya that he had only come to Indore to offer his condolences on the death of Male Rao. Ahilya then graciously invited him to Indore (sans his troops, of course) and he was royally entertained for a month.

Rebuilding India

An extreamly unusual aspect of Ahilya’s rule was her pan-India perspective. Ahilya took the crores of personal wealth accumulated by Malhar Rao, and formally dedicated it with a sankalp to the welfare of people across the country. She funded renovations, temples, ghats, dharamshalas and education centres at all the major Hindu pilgrimage sites across India, including in other kingdoms!

A fairy tale princess

Ahilya often solved problems in novel ways. For instance, the areas surrounding Indore were beset with dacoits who made travel unsafe. In a quixotic gesture straight out of a folk tale, Ahilya declared that she would give the hand in marriage of her daughter, the princess Muktabai, to the brave young man who would rid her kingdom of the menace of dacoits. As in all folk tales, a poor but brave young man, Yashwantrao Phanse, took up the challenge, and with troops and funds offered by her, made the kingdom safe and duly won the hand of the princess. With her characteristic magnanimity, Ahilya made the dacoits guardians of the highway, instead of executing them, and gave them the right to collect a highway toll!

 

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On a river bank

In 300 BC, a group of seven islands on the banks of the mighty river Seine was inhabited by tribal fisherfolk of the Celtic sub-tribe Parisii. They loved the place and its climate enough to settle there permanently and set up their capital. The region was known as Gaul until conquered by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who gave it the name Lutetia. The place was subsequently called Civitas Parisorium – The name ‘Paris’ came about only around 500 BC.

Over time, Lutetia became the commercial hub for the Romans. The original inhabitants adopted Roman manner and customs. The prosperous and strategically located city, was prone to invasions. Invading monarchs from multiple dynasties contributed to making the city what it currently is-Paris.

During the 11th and 12th Centuries, Paris was becoming an important cultural and commercial urban centre. The Seine facilitated trade and the city began to grow on both its banks. By the end of the 12th Century, Emperor Philippe Auguste had built paved streets, fountains and the huge commercial market at Les Halles on the right bank of the river. Universities, the Cathedral of Notre-Dame, the royal Sainte-Chapelle and a much expanded royal palace came up on the left bank. The fortress ‘Louvre’ was built to protect the city from invaders. For more than 700 years (until 1919), Paris remained a fortified city, with concentric boulevards, where buildings left very little space for gardens and other recreational facilities.

Fame and fall

By the end of the 13th Century, Paris had 80,000 inhabitants and was the biggest city in Europe. However, during the 14th Century, famine and plague decimated its population and the 100-year war between France and England added to the unrest. Paris lost its standing as the capital unit 1530, when Francois I ascended the throne and made Paris his capital, triggering its reconstruction and growth while bringing intellectual and cultural changes.

The old Louvre was rebuilt as a modern, Renaissance palace. The Saint-Eustache Church and the College de France were constructed. The printing press came up. Numerous poets, thinkers and humanists took centre-stage-many of them teaching at the College de France-but, strangely, massacres too occurred in the name of religion.

The Bourbon King Henry IV, brought further changes: tax regulations, agriculture, public works, forest conservation, etc. He added a massive gallery to the Louvre, built the Pont-Neuf, the oldest of the 35 bridges across the Seine, promoted art and architecture. Successive rulers contributed to building the city until 1680, when Louis XIV made Versailles his capital.

A happening city

Although no longer the capital, and damaged by three major wars during Louis XIV’s 72-year reign, Paris, with a population of 5,00,000, remained the hub of intellectual life, eventually progressing to become the intellectual capital of the world by the 1800s. The ideas of justice, liberty, equality, independence, statehood and individuality were being shaped through discussion and debate, triggering the French Revolution, which started with the storming of the Bastille prison. By the end of the revolution, the monarchy became a just and liberal republic, and Paris became the capital again.

In 1804, with Napoleon Bonaparte becoming emperor, the borders of France expanded into central and western Europe. Merit gained value over lineage, and religious tolerance increased. People migrated from rural areas, and Paris’ population grew from 6,00,000 in 1800 to 10,00,000 in 1846. Ill-equipped to cope, Paris became an unpleasant city wrought with poverty and disease. Sick of the poor governance, economic hardships and poor harvests, the elite classes and the working classes united to overthrow the monarchy in 1848.

Napoleon III then began the transformation of Paris into the modern city of today. He charged an official named Georges Haussmann with restoring Paris to its past glory and turning it into a great modern capital – with potable water networks, a modern sewage system, 2,000 hectares of greenery, hospitals, the opera and the residential areas for the working classes, and more. In 1870, the empire ended, followed by a year of unrest and bloodshed.

Fast-paced growth

By the end of the century, there was a sudden shift towards scientific and technological advances: the timeless, unmatched wrought-icon Eiffel Tower became an icon of Paris. In 1900, Paris inaugurated its first metro line. In 1910, the Sacred Heart Basilica was added to the city’s list of treasures. Impressionist painters of the time made their marks worldwide, making Paris the epicenter of revolution in art and culture. By 1911, the population was up to 2.9 million.

Between 1945 and 1974, Paris witnessed unprecedented economic growth, and its social and economic fabric underwent restructuring. Industries moved out of Paris, taking worker populations along. By 1974, the Charles de Gaulle International Airport was operational. Modern buildings came up and ‘old’ districts were rebuilt or renovated while heritage structures received protection and UNESCO recognition as a World Heritage Site.

Paris today

Today, Paris is a bustling business centre. Its two million inhabitants and 20 million annual tourists are supported by a strong services industry and the metro, trams and railways. Transportation, finance, healthcare, agriculture and engineering sectors are based in Paris. Haute couture – made-to-order clothing- was a trend that started in Paris. So was the case with haute cuisine. The art of preparing and presenting food, luxury dinning experiences and experiments with exotic ingredients and recipes is Paris’ gift to the world.

Indeed, Paris remains a crucial financial centre and one of the world’s oldest cultural and intellectual centres.

 

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