My Science School

World War I was an armed world conflict that took place mostly in Europe between 1914 and 1918 and it was fought by the Allies – Great Britain, France, Russia, and United States – on one side, and the Central Powers – Germany, Austria – Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire – on the other. The immediate cause of the World War I was the murder of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Austrian heir-apparent to the throne, by a Bosnian Serb, on June 28th, 1914, in Sarajevo. The assassination sparked the chain of events that led straight to ‘the war to end all. 

 The final Allied push towards the German border began on October 17, 1918. As the British, French, and American armies advanced, the alliance between the Central Powers began to collapse. At 5 am on the morning of November 11th, an armistice was signed in a railroad car parked in a French forest near the front lines. Fighting ceased along the entire Western Front at precisely 11 am that morning. After over four years of bloody conflict, the Great War was at an end. 

History is Repeated in Reverse

 During World War II, France was forced to surrender to Germany on 22nd June 1940. To humiliate the French, the Germans insisted that the armistice be signed in the same railway carriage, in the same forest in which Germany had been forced to surrender in World War I.

The Tay Rail Bridge was completed in February 1878 to the design of Thomas Bouch. At that time, it was the longest bridge in the world. Less than two years later, at approximately 7:15 p.m. on the stormy night of 28th December 1879, the central navigation spans of the Tay bridge collapsed into the Firth of Tay at Dundee, taking with them a train, 6 carriages and killing 75 passengers.

Another famous bridge collapse was that of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (USA). It was revolutionary in its collapse. This bridge was known for its tendency to sway in windstorms. The shape of the bridge was much like that of an aircraft wing and under windy conditions, it would rise and fall likes the movement of a galloping horse. On November 7th, 1940 a large windstorm turned the galloping motion into uncontrolled bucking, and the bridge collapsed.

There have been several other bridges that have collapsed. On October 17th 1989, several bridges in San Francisco, USA, collapsed as the result of an earthquake. Bridges are marvels of engineering, but when they collapse, the marvel turns into a tragedy with terrible consequences.

On August 13th, 1961, the East German government erected the Berlin Wall in order to keep its citizens from fleeing to the West. Just past midnight, trucks with soldiers and construction workers rumbled through East Berlin. While most Berliners were sleeping, these crews tore up streets that entered into West Berlin, dug holes to put up concrete posts, and strung barbed wire all across the border between East and West Berlin. Telephone wires between East and West Berlin were also cut. The Berlin Wall stretched over 160 kilometers. It ran not only through the centre of Berlin, but also wrapped around West Berlin, entirely cutting West Berlin off from the rest of East Germany.

 The Berlin Wall did prevent the majority of East Germans from emigrating to the West, yet during the history of the Berlin Wall, it is estimated that about 5,000 people made it safely across. The fall of the Berlin Wall happened nearly as suddenly as its rise. There had been signs that the Communist bloc was weakening yet it came as a surprise to everyone when at midnight on November 9th/10th 1989 East Germany’s Communist rulers gave permission for gates along the Wall to be opened after hundreds of people converged on crossing points. Berliners from the East surged through, cheering and shouting and were be met by jubilant West Berliners on the other side. Ecstatic crowds immediately began to clamber on top of the Wall and hack large chunks out of the 45 kilometer barrier. The Berlin Wall had become the gateway to freedom in Germany.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, also known as the USSR or Soviet Union was the successor to the Russian Empire of the tsars. It came into existence in 1922, and stretched from the Baltic and Black Seas to the Pacific Ocean. In its final years, it consisted of 15 Soviet Socialist Republics.

During the period of its existence, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was by area, the world’s largest country. It was also one of the most diverse, with more than 100 distinct nationalities living within its borders. The U.S.S.R. covered some 22,400,000 square kilometers, seven times the area of India, and two and one-half times that of the United States. The country occupied nearly one-sixth of the Earth’s land surface, including the eastern half of Europe, and roughly the northern third of Asia.

 Dramatic changes, both political and economic, occurred during the late 1980’s and early 90’s. There was political restructuring, and greater openness to revitalize a struggling economy. There was also a wave of increased nationalism among the member republics, and in December of 1991, as the world watched in amazement, the Soviet Union disintegrated into fifteen separate countries. On 25th December 1991, the Soviet flag was lowered for the last time, marking the last official day of the Soviet Union.

The British ruled India for over 100 years, and this period is known as the days of the British Raj. Under British rule, a strong Indian Nationalist Movement developed, that was led by Gandhiji. His famous campaign of non violence and civil disobedience finally succeeded in ending the British Raj and winning independence for India.The British Raj formally ended on midnight, August 14th 1947. A conch shell was blown to herald freedom, and to mark the opening of the new Indian Constituent Assembly. Each member swore allegiance to independent India. Nehru’s Independence Day speech stirred every Indian’s heart as he uttered the now famous words  ‘At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom’.

            

Between 1450 and the late 1800’s, it is estimated that between 10 and 15 million Africans were kidnapped, and sold into slavery. The slave trade was incredibly profitable, but very cruel too. For over 300 years, slaves were captured along the west coast of Africa, often with the active help of African kings and merchants. Slaves were traded for beads, textiles, brandy, horses, and guns. Slavery was illegal in the United States after the Civil War, but slaves continued to be traded in Central and South America for another 40 years, until finally slavery was declared illegal in Central and South America as well. 

Slavery existed not only in America, but in other parts of the world as well. Denmark was the first European country to abolish slavery in 1804, while Britain abolished slavery in March 1907. In the United States, slavery was one of the main issues in the Civil War between the North and the South. The last day of legal slavery in the USA was 31st January, 1865, while the world wide abolishment of slavery took place only in 1926.

 

Between 1450 and the late 1800’s, it is estimated that between 10 and 15 million Africans were kidnapped, and sold into slavery. The slave trade was incredibly profitable, but very cruel too. For over 300 years, slaves were captured along the west coast of Africa, often with the active help of African kings and merchants. Slaves were traded for beads, textiles, brandy, horses, and guns. Slavery was illegal in the United States after the Civil War, but slaves continued to be traded in Central and South America for another 40 years, until finally slavery was declared illegal in Central and South America as well. 

Slavery existed not only in America, but in other parts of the world as well. Denmark was the first European country to abolish slavery in 1804, while Britain abolished slavery in March 1907. In the United States, slavery was one of the main issues in the Civil War between the North and the South. The last day of legal slavery in the USA was 31st January, 1865, while the world wide abolishment of slavery took place only in 1926.

 

Pompeii was a large and prosperous city in Ancient Rome. It was located in the Bay of Naples, at the foot of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. It was the biggest of three cities – the other two were the neighbouring cities of Herculaneum and Stabiae- that were completely destroyed by the mighty eruption of Vesuvius on 24th August 79 AD.

The Roman writer Pliny the Younger has given an eyewitness account of the disaster that gives us a clear picture of ever horrific detail during Pompeii’s last days. The first explosion created a thick cloud of dark ash, which was followed by a flood of hot ash, cinders, and poisonous fumes over the next two days. The ash completely buried and sealed off the cities of both Pompeii and Stabiae. Bodies were perfectly preserved by the hot ash, so that they remained exactly as they were, even to their facial expressions, at the moment of death. Herculaneum was buried under a stream of boiling mud and lava, and was preserved in perfect detail too. The ruins of Pompeii were discovered only in 1749. 

 The ancient Phoenicians had an arrow-like symbol in their alphabet. It was the seventh letter, and called ‘zayin’. The ancient Greeks adopted this symbol from the Phoenicians as the sixth letter of their alphabet in 8000 BC. They called it ‘zeta’, and gave it its present form. The Romans adopted it from the Greek alphabet in 100 AD, and Z is the last letter of the Roman alphabet to this day. ‘Z’ is pronounced as ‘zed’ by the British and as ‘zee’ in America. If you are sending a Morse code, you will have to send two dashes and two dots to present ‘Z’! Another interesting fact about ‘Z’ is that it was used to represent the Roman number 2000 in medieval times.

  Do you know what a penal colony is? It is a settlement of prisoners who have been exiled from their homeland as a punishment, and transported to a far away location. Britain started sending convicts to America from 1597 onwards. The practice was stopped in 1776, with the American War of Independence. British prisoners were sent to Western Australia instead, and new penal colonies were established there. Twenty per cent of these first convicts were women. A system of labour was established in which people, whatever their crime, were employed according to their skills – as brick makers, carpenters, nurses, servants, cattlemen, shepherds, and farmers. Educated convicts were set to the relatively easy work of record – keeping for the convict administration.

 Convicts formed the majority of the colony’s population for the first few decades, and by 1821, there were a growing number of freed convicts who were appointed to positions f trust and responsibility as well as being granted land. Meanwhile, public opinion in Britain was against the establishment of penal colonies, and the practice was abolished in 1860. The last convict ships left Britain in 1867, and arrived at their destination in 1868, 80 years after the arrival of the first convicts in Western Australia

In 1804 the first steam-powered engine, carrying some iron, ran in Wales, in Britain. But it was almost twenty five years later, in 1829, that George Stephenson, a British engineer, designed the ‘Rocket’ – a steam engine that created history. Trials were held by the Liverpool and Manchester Railway Company, to find the best locomotive engine for a railway line that was being built to serve these two English cities. On the day of the trials, some 15,000 people came along to see the race of the locomotives. During the race, the Rocket reached speeds of 24 mph during the 20 laps of the course. This was due to several new design features. The Rocket paved the way for steam locomotives all over Europe, Asia, and America. The era of steam engines is often called the ‘golden age’, of railways. Gradually though, steam engines were replaced by diesel and electric locomotives. The beginning of the end for steam engines began in the 1950’s. America’s last steam engine ran in 1958, while the last steam engine in Britain was retired from use in 1968.The last steam powered land speed record was set on 23rd January 1906, at Dayton beach in the USA, when Fred Marriot, an American, reached an amazing 127.659 mph in his steam powered car

 

 The Model T was a very important car in American history. It was launched on October 1st 1908, by Henry Ford, who had pledged that he would build a car that was cheap enough for anyone with a reasonable salary to buy.

 Henry Ford kept his promise, and the Model T was mostly made out of wooden parts, and had a 4 cylinder engine. It was produced by the Ford Motor Company from 1909 through 1927. Mass production kept the price reasonable and sales zoomed. The car was so popular that the Ford Motor Company sold over 15,007,003 Model Ts. On May 26th 1927, Ford and his son Edsel drove the 15 millionth Model T Ford out of their factory, marking the famous automobile’s official last day of production.

 The Model T was a very important car in American history. It was launched on October 1st 1908, by Henry Ford, who had pledged that he would build a car that was cheap enough for anyone with a reasonable salary to buy.

 Henry Ford kept his promise, and the Model T was mostly made out of wooden parts, and had a 4 cylinder engine. It was produced by the Ford Motor Company from 1909 through 1927. Mass production kept the price reasonable and sales zoomed. The car was so popular that the Ford Motor Company sold over 15,007,003 Model Ts. On May 26th 1927, Ford and his son Edsel drove the 15 millionth Model T Ford out of their factory, marking the famous automobile’s official last day of production.

  Nicholas II will be remembered not because he was a great ruler, but because he was the last Tsar of Russia. The rulers of Russia were known as tsars, and Nicholas was the eldest son of Tsar Alexander III. He succeeded his father in 1894. Nicholas encouraged Russian expansion in Manchuria. This provoked war with Japan in1904. The resulting Russian defeat led to riots. Nicholas was forced to grant a constitution and establish a parliament, the Duma. During World War I, Nicholas was away from Russia a lot. Russia suffered heavy losses in the war.  In 1917, widespread popular demonstrations began in the capital. Nicholas lost the support of the army, and had to give up his throne. A shaky provisional government was established which was overthrown in October 1917 by the Bolsheviks. On 17th July 1918, Nicholas and his family were executed, and the rule of the Tsars in Russia was over.

Louis XVI was King of France when the monarchy was overthrown. His reign was marked by the outbreak of the French Revolution. In 1774, Louis XVI inherited a kingdom that was in grave difficulty. He was sent to the guillotine and beheaded in 1793, and this marked the end of the French monarchy, and the establishment of the First French Republic.

The First Republic lasted only 12 years, before Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of France. He was forced to abdicate, and the monarchy was restored with Louis XVIII as king. It survived till 1848, when the Second republic came into existence. The Second republic lasted only four years, before Louis, Napoleon’s nephew, proclaimed himself the Emperor. He was ousted in 1870. This led to the establishment of the Third Republic.