My Science School

          Spain is one of the greatest colonial powers the world has seen. Almost five thousand years ago, the Celts and Phoenicians settled in Spain. It became a part of the Roman Empire in 200 BC.

          The Romans ruled Spain for centuries until they were invaded by the Visigoths in AD 475. The Moors from North Africa later conquered the kingdom. Christian kings gradually gained control over Spain, expelled the Moors and made it a Catholic kingdom.

          After its unification, it was a period of expansion for Spain. The Spanish conquered most of the Americas and set up colonies. But their superpower status began to recede in the 1600s.

          In the 19th century, Spain was defeated in the Napoleonic War. Napoleon’s brother became the king for a brief while, but was soon overthrown and the Spanish monarchy was restored.

          The Spanish Civil War started in 1936 and after three years of turmoil, the Spanish Republic was established. Francisco Franco became the new leader who ruled the country till 1975.

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          The smallest independent country is completely surrounded by the capital of Italy. Engulfed by Rome, Vatican City is the smallest country and the seat of the Roman Catholic Church. It is headed by the Pope.

          Italy once had a large area ruled by the Catholic Church. All that remains of this region is the city of Vatican. Modern Italy agreed to grant independence to Vatican in the year 1929. The population of the country consists almost entirely of religious officials and others who work within the Papal Palace.

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          Towards the end of the 14th century, the great minds of Italy kick-started a new era. In contrast to the Middle Ages, all spheres of life underwent a dramatic change. Individual achievements were praised highly. The individual was regarded with great reverence and this influenced paintings, architecture, politics, culture and even science.

          Scientists started to work in a different way to know the rules of nature. These developments as a whole are known as the Renaissance in world history. It started in Italy and spread to the rest of the world. No wonder Italy has the highest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

          Italy is of utmost cultural and industrial importance. Rome holds multifarious monuments of historical and cultural importance including the Colosseum, the Pantheon and various other marvels of art and architecture. Italian cuisine is one of the most preferred foods around the world. Who would not like pizzas and pastas! Milan in Italy is regarded as the fashion capital of the world and the home of various fashion brands like Gucci and Prada. Italy is also famous for automobiles like Ferrari, Lamborghini, Maserati and Fiat.

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          Italy played a key role in shaping the modern world. The great rulers of the Roman Empire hail from Italy. Modern Italy did not exist till 1861. Until then, this region had small provinces spread across the Italian peninsula.

          Amid the country’s numerous small cities and states, the city of Rome remained pre-eminent because it was the centre of the Roman Catholic Church. After a series of wars against the rulers led by Mazzini and Garibaldi, these provinces united to form the kingdom of Italy in 1861.

          The United Kingdom of Italy took a different turn when Benito Mussolini, a fascist dictator gained power. He led Italy to the Second World War. In 1947, after Mussolini’s era, Italy became a democratic republic.

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          Long before, Albania was a part of the Turkish empire of the Ottomans which lasted for at least three centuries. The country gained freedom in 1912.

          In 1946, Albania became a communist country under the leadership of Enver Hoxha. Albania functioned as a socialist state, with business and farmlands under the control of the State. Outside influence was seen as a threat to the stability of the government. To overcome this, Hoxha imposed a ban on travels outside the country. Albanians were not allowed even to own a TV. It also banned practice of any religion. Hoxha died in 1985, but the oppression did not stop. Frustrated, Albanians were done with the government and called for a reform.

          The reform brought considerable changes. The government gradually increased the freedom of the people. The history of Albania took a turn in 1991 as it held the first democratic election which resulted in the downfall of communism. The new government did not regulate wages and prices. This led to much poverty and many Albanians emigrated.

          Andorrans haven’t been at war for almost a thousand years now. In the 1930s, France occupied the country to prevent the effects of the Spanish Civil war from entering Andorra. Though Andorrans declared war against Germany in the Second World War, they didn’t really send anybody to fight.

          According to legends, Andorra was founded by Emperor Charlemagne, a Frankish ruler. Andorrans are believed to have helped the emperor in defeating the Moors. The French Count of Foix and the Spanish Bishop jointly began to rule Andorra from 1278. Andorra practiced this feudal system until it was replaced by democracy in 1993. Even today, Andorra has two official heads- the Bishop of Urgel and the President of France.

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          Around two thousand years ago,  Switzerland was called Helvetia when the Romans conquered the land. It was initially inhabited by a group of people known as Helvetii who named it so. Along with its new name, Switzerland is still known as Helvetia in some places.

          After years of war against their oppressive rulers, the Swiss gained independence in 1648. This was a time when wars swept across Europe between several countries. But Switzerland chose to remain neutral, avoiding the violence and brutality of war. A constitution was established after the wars under the mediation of Napoleon, but it did not last long. It subsequently became a republic with twenty-two cantons.

          Switzerland remained neutral during World War I and II. The Swiss concentrated on industrialization and economic growth. The peaceful atmosphere of the country has attracted many organizations like the UN and the WHO to establish their offices in the country. Switzerland today is a federal democratic state with peace, stability and prosperity.

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          Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg are collectively known as the Low Countries because most of the land lies near the coast of the North Sea. These countries came together for trade and became rich in the Middle Ages.

          The French dukes controlled this area for a while. But, they chose to join the Habsburg family in the 1500s, which ruled over Spain and Austria. Peace did not prevail in the Low Countries even though they were rich. There were a series of wars and they were ruled by foreign powers time and again. Belgium broke free from Netherlands in 1830 and Luxembourg gained independence in 1867.

          In 1948, these countries joined again in an economic union. This union is referred to as Benelux, a combination of the first sounds of the three countries. Benelux was a founding member of the European Economic Community.

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          Denmark has one of the most peaceful societies in the world with high standards of living. It is one of the least corrupted democracies.

          Denmark was once ruled by the Vikings. The Vikings were replaced by the Danish monarch. Remember the Kalmar Union that we discussed in the history of Sweden? After the dissolution of this treaty, Denmark went to war against Sweden and lost much of its territory.

          The country fought wars with Germany too. Denmark lost Schleswig to Germany, but it was regained after the First World War. This happened in the 1920s, leading to the creation of modern Denmark.

          Germany occupied Denmark during the Second World War, but it was freed after the war. Today, Denmark is a constitutional monarchy with a vibrant representative democracy.

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          Finland has strong neighbours who played a key role in shaping its history. It is a small nation positioned between Sweden and Russia and has often been a tool to prove the power of its neighbours. Sweden started to gain control over Finland from the 1100s which was later lost to Russia in the Napoleonic War.

          Russia invaded Finland in 1809 and it became part of the Russian Empire. The Russian Revolution paved way to Finland’s independence. It became a free country in 1907. After gaining liberty, the people tried to establish a monarchy. This attempt was a failure; the country later became a republic with the president as the head of the State. The Soviet Union occupied Finland again during World War ll. Though the country lost some of its territories, it regained freedom after the war.

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           Sweden was not known to the world till Vikings explored this land. Sweden prospered under the rule of Vikings who fought wars to expand their territory.

          By AD 1000, several provinces united and established nobility. Later in 1389, Sweden, Denmark and Norway united under the Danish Queen Margaret. This is known as the Kalmar Union. The Kalmar Union was short-lived: internal conflicts erupted between these countries and they broke off the agreement.

          The credit of building modern Sweden goes largely to King Gustav Vasa. Sweden enjoyed great cultural developments in the 18th and 19th centuries due to its contact with France. The economy picked up during World War I. Sweden is now one of the wealthiest nations of the world. The monarch is still the head of the country, but the real power lies with the elected representatives of the people.

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          Europe has had great influence on political history since time immemorial. The system of democracy as we know today was developed in Europe in about 450 BC.

           People from this not-so-big continent went around the world and colonized it. Almost all the countries around the world would have a European link at one point or the other. At a point of time, European powers, especially Britain, Spain and Portugal controlled the world. These countries grew rich by exploiting Asia, Africa and the Americas.

          The Great Wars of the world began in Europe. Both World War I and World War II had their roots in Europe. The tension between communism and capitalism was played out here primarily. This power struggle that took place between the communist and non-communist countries is known as the Cold War which finally witnessed the collapse of the Soviet Union.

          Today, Europe has 51 independent countries and related territories. Armenia and Cyprus are considered to be in Europe though they are geographically located in West Asia.

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          The story about the rulers of Peru is as old as the story of the Inca civilization. The Inca civilization flourished in Peru in the 1400s. A Spanish conqueror named Francisco Pizzaro destroyed the empire of the Incas and established a settlement. This happened in 1532 and Spain ruled Peru for the next 300 years. The Spanish rule was largely oppressive and the natives rebelled against their rulers. After a series of violent battles, Peru earned its independence in the 1820s.

          Peru has had times of trouble after independence. From the mid twentieth century, Peru’s government alternated between democracy and military regimes. A Maoist group called the Shining Path gained power over Peru in the 1970s. However, they faded away after their leader Abimael Guzman was captured in 1992.

          Peru is a peaceful democracy since the 1990s. The people of Peru are required to vote by law!

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          The Portuguese did not go to Brazil with the dream of establishing a settlement. In fact, Brazil provided a safe place to hide for the Portuguese king who had fled from the French army. Surprising, isn’t it?

          In 1808, the French army led by Napoleon invaded Portugal. King Joao IV ran off to Brazil and later established his empire there. The empire came into the hands of his son, Pedro afterwards.

          King Pedro was a kind ruler and he granted independence to Brazil and abolished slavery. This act angered the wealthy landowners of Brazil. As a result, the royal family was forced to flee back to their motherland.

          Modern Brazil is not just about carnivals and natural wonders. The country now has an unstable economy. Brazil was once one of the leading industrial exporters in the world. It faced a great economic crisis in 1929. Though it recovered from the impacts of depression, the country had to face inflation for many years after 1980. The crisis became severe in 2014 as the trade balance was not maintained. In addition, the household consumption increased and the investments were low. The changes in the economic policy of the country too had an adverse effect.

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          Beyond football and pasturelands, Argentina has a history of gory wars. After gaining independence, Argentina faced a situation of political turbulence and a series of military governments.

          The period 1976-83 is known as ‘The Dirty War’ in its history. There was a seven-year campaign by the Argentine government which aimed to chase out Leftism. Thousands of suspected Left wing activists simply disappeared from Argentina.

          In 1982, Argentina went to war with Britain. This time, the dispute was about the ownership of Falkland, an island in the South Atlantic. The Argentines believed that the British had seized the island from them in the nineteenth century. The Falkland war started on 2nd April 1982. The British naval fleet under instructions from Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher fought against Argentina till the Argentines surrendered on June 14.

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