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           The art and architecture that came into being during their reign speak for the glory of the Pallavas. The Pallavas were pioneers in art and architecture in the south.

          The Pallavas constructed the first stone and mortar temples of south India. They also made cave temples, rock sculptures and brick temples, all of which can be found at Mahabalipuram.

           Rock-cut temples came to be built in various parts of Tamil Nadu during the period of Mahendravarman I, the most important ones being at Pallavaram, Mamandur and Thalavanur. Narasimhavarman I became famous for building monolithic rathas, the notable ones being the fall of the river Ganga from the head of Lord Shiva, and Arjuna’s penance.

          The construction of structural temples began during the reign of Rajasimha. They came to be known so as they were built using granite slabs. The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, with two vimanas surrounded by seated nandis is one of the remarkable structural temples.

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          The Pallavas reasserted their power in the 6th century AD, after defeating the Kalabhras.

          During the rule of Mahendravarman I and Narasimhavarman I, the Pallavas dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region. With Kanchi as their capital, they established themselves as a major power and ruled for about 600 years. The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during the reign of Narasimhavarman I. In his descriptions, he notes that Kanchi had fertile soil.

           The climate was hot and the region produced plenty of grain, and many flowers and fruits. The area also produced precious gems. The people were courageous, honest and truthful.

           The Chalukyas of Badami and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas and the Pandyas were in constant conflict during the reign of the Pallavas.

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           The Rashtrakutas occupied the territory that was earlier ruled by the Chalukyas; Dantidurga established his kingdom in the western Deccan in AD 735, after defeating the Chalukyas. Dantidurga is said to be the son of a Chalukyan princess Bhavanaga. He took the titles Rajadhiraja and Parameshvara after defeating the Chalukyas.

           The Rashtrakuta kings expanded their territory by winning wars against the Pallavas, Cholas and other prominent rulers of south India. In the north, they fought against the Pratiharas and Palas and even occupied Kanauj for a while.

           Amoghavarsha occupied a special place amongst the Rashtrakuta kings; he was known for his learning and liking for Jainism. Krishna III, who annexed part of the Chola Empire in AD 949, is known as the last great Rashtrakuta king.

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            The rule of the Chalukyas is often regarded as the Golden Age of Karnataka. A huge shift happened in the politics of south India with the ascendancy of the Badami Chalukyas, as smaller kingdoms were replaced by large empires.

           Their kingdom based in south India took control over and consolidated the entire region between the rivers Kaveri and Narmada.

           This period saw an exemplary administration, a rise in overseas trade and commerce, and the development of a new style of architecture called the ‘Chalukyan architecture’.

           Kannada literature enjoyed royal patronage during the reign of the Western Chalukyas, while the Eastern Chalukyas patronized Telugu literature.

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             It was after the death of Pulakeshin II that the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom. They established themselves in the eastern Deccan and started ruling from Vengi. Pulakeshin II, who conquered the eastern Deccan in AD 616 had appointed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the governor of the new territory.

           Territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western Deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas after the decline of the Badami Chalukya Empire. This was followed by the subjugation of the Eastern Chalukyas by the Rashtrakutas for much of the next two centuries.

           The Eastern Chalukyas were notorious for causing many wars between the Cholas and the Western Chalukyas; both the kingdoms fought over the control of the strategic Vengi region.

           Telugu culture, literature, poetry and art flourished during the latter half of the rule of the Eastern Chalukyas.

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  As soon as Pulakeshin II ascended the throne in AD 610, he granted pardon to all those who opposed his succession in order to restore peace. He then worked to strengthen the law and order situation throughout his kingdom and settle other primary needs of the people.

          It won’t be wrong to say that Pulakeshin II, lived up to his name that meant ‘great lion’. He captured Vanavasi from the Kadambas, took over parts of the Pallava territory and defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the river Narmada. As per an inscription found in Ai-hole, Pulakeshin ruled over ninety-nine thousand villages. He instilled fear in the kings of the neighbouring areas.

          Battles were not the only thing he was famous for; he was one of the most benevolent administrators as well. Pulakeshin II sent an ambassador to the court of Khusru II, king of Persia and had temples constructed in his kingdom. He was defeated and killed by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman in AD 642.

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          Afghanistan and Gandhara were ruled by the descendants of Kushanas. Later, Turkish Shahiya kings were replaced by the Hindu-Shahi dynasty. Jayapala became the ruler of the Shahi kingdom in the late 10th century AD; he ruled over west Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, and east Afghanistan. But, this kingdom was brought to the ground by Mahmud of Ghazni in the 11th century AD.

          The Karkota dynasty established themselves in Kashmir in the 7th century AD. Lalitaditya Muktapida was the most famous among their line of kings, who conquered parts of Punjab and defeated Yashovarman of Kanauj. Kamarupa was an independent state in the north-east through which, important trade routes from eastern India to east Tibet and China, passed. In the 16th century, the Ahom kingdom came into prominence in Assam.

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          The Rajputs were not a single dynasty; they were chivalric, land owning Kshatriyas from north India and Gujarat. The Rajputs had many branches like Gurjara-Pratiharas, Chahamanas, Solankis and Vaghelas.

           Several Rajput-ruled kingdoms played a significant role in many regions of central and north India. The kingdom of Mewar ruled by the Sisodias was the first major Rajput kingdom. Most of their subjects were farmers. Trade and commerce flourished in their times. Though the Rajputs were strong and brave, they failed to accomplish much.

         They were always fighting with each other and seldom united even against a common foe. The feudal system also proved disastrous for the Rajputs. They were great patriots of their clan; but they cared more for their chiefs and clans rather than the country as a whole.

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         The death of Harsha was followed by a struggle for power in north India by many dynasties; Kanauj was the centre of all these struggles. Many of these dynasties called themselves Rajputs. The name Rajput came from Raja-putra, sons of kings.

         The Pratiharas, the Gahadavalas, the Palas, the Senas, the Chahamanas or Chauhans, the Chandellas, the Kalachuris, the Guhilas, the Solankis and the Paramaras were some of the known kingdoms of this period. The Pratiharas ruled over the area around Jodhpur while the Gahadavalas ruled over most of Uttar Pradesh. The Palas remained in power till the 1150s.

         The Chauhans ruled in Shakambhari in the 7th century AD. Prithviraj Chauhan was the last Chauhan ruler. For a long time, the Chandellas controlled the land of the Pratiharas. They later became independent and ruled Bundelkhand. During their rule, the Chandellas built many important temples, the most famous among them being those at Khajuraho, in Madhya Pradesh.

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          The Chinese traveller Hieun Tsang once visited the court of Harsha following which, he wrote an account. In it, he praised Harsha’s justice and generosity. The peace and prosperity that prevailed in Harsha’s empire made it a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide.

          Though Harshavardhana had many officials to help him with administration, he was a king who liked to personally supervise his kingdom. Harsha’s empire was divided into provinces and he travelled around all of them, spending nights in different places, listening to people’s troubles.

          King Harsha is said to have had a large army comprising 100,000 horses and 60,000 elephants. At the zenith of Harsha’s power, his empire covered much of north and north-western India and extended up to Kamarupa in the east, and river Narmada in the south. Harsha also tried to expand his empire into the southern peninsula of India, but was halted by the south Indian Emperor Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty.

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           Of all the small kingdoms that emerged in the north after the Gupta Empire, the Vardhanas emerged as prominent rulers. Known also as Pushyabhuti or Pushpabhuti, the Vardhanas ruled during the 6th and 7th centuries. Their kingdom flourished and was at its peak under Harshavardhana, the last Vardhana ruler.

          The political supremacy of the Vardhanas helped them gain imperial status and established them as a powerful kingdom. Harshavardhana shifted the capital from Sthanvishvara (modern Thanesar, Haryana) to Kanyakubja (modern Kanauj, Uttar Pradesh), from where he ruled until AD 647. Later, Kanauj became the capital of several future kingdoms.

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