My Science School

In the days before boats had a central rudder they were steered by an oar called a 'steer board' on the right hand side.

To avoid crushing the steer board, the boat tied up in port on the left hand side, hence the names 'port' and 'starboard'.

In the past, ships used to have rudders on their centre line and they were controlled using a steering oar. As it is the case today, back then as well the majority of the people were right handed.

Thus, as most of the sailors were right handed, the steering oar used to control the ship was located over or through the right side of the stern.

For this reason, most of the seafarers were calling the right side as the ‘steering side’, which later was known as ‘starboard’.

As the right side was the steerboard side or star board side, the left side was the port side. This was decide so that the dock would not interfere with operating the steerboard or star.

Another reason why the left side is ‘port’ is because it sounds different from ‘starboard’. Originally, sailors were calling the left side ‘larboard’, which was easily confused with ‘starboard’, especially when challenging conditions at sea made it difficult to hear. The switch was done to lead to a distinctive alternate name.

Namely, the old English name for the port side sounded like ‘backboard’. On big vessels, the sailor using the steering would have his back facing the ship’s left side.

As a result, ‘backboard’was named ‘laddebord’, which is the loading side of the ship. Later, ‘laddebord’ became ‘larboard’, causing the confusion that led to change to port.

This is why ships are using the terms ‘port’ and ‘starboard’, as they are unambiguous references that are independent of a mariner’s orientation.

With these terms, seafarers remove ambiguity, and they prefer them over using the terms left and right.

Credit : Intlreg 

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Christmas in Sweden begins on December 13, which is St Lucia's day. Long ago the early Christians were persecuted and had to meet in dark underground caves. St Lucia risked her life to bring them food. On her head she wore a crown of candles to light her way. One day she was caught by the Roman Emperor's soldiers and killed.

Today she is remembered each Christmas by young Swedish girls. They get up early on St Lucia's day dress as she did to take buns and coffee to their families - who are still in bed!

In actuality, Lucy was probably a victim of the wave of persecution of Christians that occurred late in the reign of the Roman emperor Diocletian. References to her are found in early Roman sacramentaries and, at Syracuse, in an inscription dating from 400 CE. As evidence of her early fame, two churches are known to have been dedicated to her in Britain before the 8th century, at a time when the land was largely pagan.

St. Lucy is venerated on her feast day, December 13, by a variety of ceremonies. In Sweden, St. Lucia’s Day marks the beginning of the Christmas celebration. On that day the eldest daughter of the family traditionally dresses in a white robe and wears as a crown an evergreen wreath studded with candles. The festival is meant to bring hope and light during the darkest time of the year.

Credit : Britannica 

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The peace pipe was a sacred object to the Indians. Called a 'calumet' it was usually made out of stone. All important dealings were sealed with the smoking of the peace pipe. To break your word after this would make the spirits very angry.

The Sacred Pipe was revered as a holy object, and the sacrament of smoking was employed as a major means of communication between humans and sacred beings; the narcotic effect of tobacco and the symbolism of the indrawn and ascending smoke affirmed that such communication took place. The pipe itself was a symbolic microcosm. Its parts, its colours, and the motifs used in its decoration each corresponded to essential parts of the indigenous universe. The pipe was smoked in personal prayer and during collective rituals, and both of these uses commonly began with invocations to the six directions: east, south, west, north, skyward, and earthward. Among some tribes such as the Pawnee, Omaha, and Crow, complex pipe dances were developed that presented smoke offerings to the Almighty on behalf of the entire community

Credit :  Britannica 

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Spanish pieces of eight were silver coins worth eight reales. They were shipped in huge quantities between Europe and Mexico by the powerful Spanish empire. Commonly known as dollars, they and the gold doubloon coin were the main targets of pirates.

In 1652 the Massachusetts Bay Company became the first colony to mint its own coins, since because of the English Civil War there was no monarch on the throne of England. The issue of coinage by colonists was strictly prohibited by England, but the Puritans of Massachusetts continued to make their own coins for some thirty years thereafter, stamping the year 1652 on them as a way to circumvent the law.

There were frequent money shortages in the colonies, which usually ran a trade deficit with Europe: the colonies supplied raw goods to Europe, but finished goods, including manufactured items were mostly imported, resulting in an imbalance of trade. Coinage scarce, most colonists conducted trade as barter, exchanging goods and services for the same. The monetary situation on the North American mainland remained tenuous even after the American Revolution (1775–1783). It was not stabilized until after 1785 when Congress established the dollar as the official currency of the new United States.

Credit : Encyclopedia.com

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This story is told in Homer's poem, the Iliad. Troy in Asia Minor, had been under siege by the Greeks for 10 years. The Greeks tricked the Trojans into opening the city gates for a great wooden horse, which was full of soldiers hidden inside. Once the gates were opened the Greek army followed and captured Troy.

The Trojans believed the huge wooden horse was a peace offering to their gods and thus a symbol of their victory after a long siege. They pulled the giant wooden horse into the middle of the city.

They didn't realize that the Greeks had hidden a select group of soldiers inside the horse. That night, after the Trojans had gone to bed, the Greek soldiers inside the horse were able to get out and open the gates of the city to let in the remainder of the Greek army, which had sailed back under the cover of night.

Taking the Trojans by surprise in the middle of the night, the Greeks were able finally to conquer Troy. Today, the term “Trojan horse" is still used to refer to any kind of deception or trick that involves getting a target willingly to allow an enemy into a secure place.

The Trojan horse is also the source of the nickname “Trojans" for computer programs — called malware — that can infect computer systems. Many of these harmful programs appear to be useful or merely harmless programs. In this way, they convince users to install and run them, not realizing what harm they can do once they're installed.

Credit : Wonderopolis 

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Rumours began to reach the eastern states of the great rich lands of the West. Stories of great rivers, plentiful supplies of food and gold made families decide to risk everything. They sold their homes and packed everything into a small covered wagon.

Because of the risk from Indians and robbers they travelled in large numbers called wagon trains.

Wagon-train transportation moved westward with the advancing frontier. The 19th century saw the development of such famous roads as the Santa Fe Trail, the Oregon Trail, the Smoky Hill Trail, and the Southern Overland Mail route. It was, however, in transit westward over the Oregon-California Trail that the wagon trains attained their most highly organized and institutionalized character. Meeting in early spring at a rendezvous town, perhaps near the Missouri River, the groups would form companies, elect officers, employ guides, and collect essential supplies while awaiting favourable weather, usually in May. Those riding in the wagons were directed and protected by a few on horseback. Once organized and on their way, wagon-train companies tended to follow a fairly fixed daily routine, from 4 AM rising, to 7 AM leaving, 4 PM encampment, cooking and tending to chores while the animals grazed, and simple recreation before early retirement. The companies had to be prepared for such challenges as crossing rivers and mountains and meeting hostile Indians.

Wagon-train migrations are more widely known and written about than wagon freighting, which also played an essential role in an expanding America. Teamsters, best known as bullwhackers or muleskinners, conducted commercial operations on a more or less fixed two-way schedule until replaced by the railroad and the truck.

Credit :  Britannica 

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The people of the Arctic are called Eskimo, which means 'eating it raw. Traditionally, they lived on a diet of raw fish, walrus, seal blubber and whale skin.

They prefer to call themselves 'Inuit', which means 'the people'.

The origin of the word Eskimo is a matter of some contention, but it is generally understood to be of Algonquian origin, Innu-aimun (Montagnais) more specifically. It was long thought to mean “eaters of raw meat.” Algonquian language speakers (including dialects of Cree, Innu-aimun and Ojibwe) have used words to describe the Inuit that would substantiate this definition, including ashkipok (Eastern Ojibwe), eshkipot (Ojibwe), askamiciw (Cree), kachikushu (North Shore Montagnais). (See also Indigenous Languages in Canada.)

However, scholars like Ives Goddard have argued that those forms only support an Ojibwe root, rather than the understood Innu-aimun origin. This theory points to the origin of the word as the Innu-aimun awassimew/ayassimew, which means roughly “one who laces snowshoes.” It is possible that this term was used generally by the Innu to describe the Mi’kmaq, and was later transferred to Inuit upon contact between the two groups. As the word came into use in Ojibwe, its original meaning may have become blurred, as the ashk- prefix can also mean raw or fresh in Ojibwe. French explorers and settlers translated the word toesquimaux, the Danish spelling.

Credit : The Canadian Encyclopedia 

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Small pieces of gold get washed down the rivers and collect in quiet pools. People would scoop up the sand from the river and swirl it around in a shallow pan. The heavier pieces of gold would be left at the bottom.

During the Tertiary period, about 2 million years ago, the mountains underwent a lot of twisting and faulting. Many streams were formed, most of which ran in a South-East direction. The benches of these ancient rivers and streams are well known for the rich deposits they contain. These deposits often have a deep blue color, and are called 'Blue lead', which turns a rusty reddish brown after being dug up and exposed to the air. They are often very hard and compacted.

Flood gold can be found at the bottom of flood layers where heavy storms with enough force to move large amounts of gold will produce concentrations. Watch for layers of differing color, hardness and consistency. Some hard layers may masquerade as bedrock, so don't give up if the going gets a little hard. The shortest route idea applies here, also. Sharp bends may show good return in the inside edges quite far from the normal water line.

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When danger threatens, the squid, like the octopus and the cuttlefish, can squirt dark ink fluid to conceal themselves. The ink clouds the water and confuses their enemy.

Squid are aggressive hunters, but some species are worse than others. The Humboldt squid is of particular danger to divers because it's large -- about the size of a man -- and shows little fear or hesitation when hunting prey. Colossal squid are just as aggressive and fast hunters, and they top out at 2,000 pounds. Thankfully, these giant sea creatures tend to stay in deeper water away from where humans typically dive.

When trying to avoid squid, divers might look for the telltale oblong shape and colors such as red or white. What makes squid dangerous is that their colors aren't constant. They have the ability to change color almost instantaneously to match their environment. If you spot a squid while diving, you could lose sight of him quickly as he morphs to blend in with the background. He can hit you from what seems like out of nowhere.

Many squid have more than suction cups on their tentacles -- they have sharp teeth or claws to grab prey. When a Humboldt squid grabs a diver, for example, he engages teeth that ring each suction cup. Each squid can have up to 35,000 teeth. These sharp teeth bite through protective swim gear to grasp and tear flesh. Squid with claws can rip and tear through your suit and skin. Squid also have sharp beaks designed to pierce the hard flesh and exoskeletons of sea creatures; your skin isn't a match for this strong mouthpiece.

Credit : Pets on Mom

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In Mexico all through the Christmas festival, children have great fun when they are blind-folded and hit a pinata with a stick. The hollow clay pinata jars are hung above the childern's heads. They hit them with sticks, and when at last the jar splits, Sweet and treats spill all over the floor!

Decide on what you would like to fill up the pinata with. Candies are the obvious choice, but you can fill it up with other things that are lightweight – confetti, wrapped gum, chocolate coins, small trinkets, and candies. The amount of candies you’ll fill up in the pinata depends on the number of guests you’re expecting for the party and also the size of your pinata.

A typical pinata that you buy in the store can hold a maximum of two pounds of candy – that is about 100. Some pinatas can hold only confetti and candies and nothing else. But there are sturdier and larger pinatas that you can buy or make that you can also fill up with a variety of things.

If you’re buying a pinata, you have the option of getting the regular kind that the kids will try hitting and breaking with a stick. The other kind, which comes with a pull string is more suitable for smaller kids since it’s safer and easier for young children.

If it’s a party for kids and adults, you can get both types of pinata and hang them in two different locations for fun for all.

Credit : Express Party Supplies 

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These were the tough men who blazed the trails across America. Bearded and dressed in skins they were mainly beaver trappers. Because of their knowledge of the country, many became guides for the wagon trains.

In the early 19th century, St. Louis was an important base for them for trading groups and trading-company caravans. Mingling extensively with the Indians, the mountain men adopted many of their manners of life and their beliefs as well as their love of adornment. Summer rendezvous, especially at Green River (in present-day Wyoming), became an institution of the mountain men, combining trade with recreation. As permanent settlers arrived, many mountain men served as scouts and guides, but their way of life was gradually eliminated by advancing civilization.

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They were the doctors of the tribe, but their main purpose was to deal with the spirits which the Indians believed were all around.

Traditionally, medicine people are called upon to prevent or heal the physical and mental illnesses of individuals as well as the social ruptures that occur when murders and other calamitous events take place within a community. Some medicine men and women undergo rigorous initiation to gain supernormal powers, while others become experts through apprenticeships; many complete a combination of these processes.

The medicine person commonly carries a kit of objects—feathers of particular birds, suggestively shaped or marked stones, pollen, hallucinogenic or medicinal plants, and other items—that are associated with healing. In some cases these materials are considered to have been drawn out of the body of the practitioner at his or her initiation to the healer’s arts. Correspondingly, the work of healing often involves the extraction of offending substances from the patient’s body by sucking, pulling, or other means. In some cases an object must be physically removed from the patient (e.g., the healer removes a projectile from a wound); in cases where the nature of the offending substance is metaphysical, however, the healing ritual focuses on achieving mental and spiritual health. In such cases a symbolic object may be “removed” from the patient by sleight of hand.

Credit :  Britannica 

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Many Chinese live all their lives on floating flat bottomed wooden boats called sampans.

In some cities where space is limited, people live crowded together on sampans in big harbours. Some boats sell goods, other are used for fishing by day, and sleeping on by night.

The word "sampan" comes from the original Cantonese term for the boats, literally meaning "three planks". The name referred to the hull design, which consists of a flat bottom (made from one plank) joined to two sides (the other two planks). The design closely resembles Western hard chine boats like the scow or punt. Pierre-Yves Manguin has pointed out possible Austronesian origin of the word, attested in a Malay inscription from 684 CE.

Sampans may be propelled by poles, oars (particularly a single, long sculling oar called a yuloh) or may be fitted with outboard motors.

Sampans are still in use by rural residents of Southeast Asia, particularly in Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka and Vietnam.

In the Malay community in Southeast Asia, they also use the term sampan for their boats. Large boats such as sampan panjang, kolek and perahu panjang are used and built by the Malays and Orang Laut living in their coastal villages.

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It is the official residence of the President of the United States of America. It is in Washington, the capital.

The White House was designed by an Irish architect and the foundation stone was laid in 1792. President John Adams was its first occupant in 1880.

The house was originally built of grey Virginian sandstone, but in August 1814 it was burned by British troops. After the war it was painted white to hide the marks made by the smoke.

The white nineteenth-century house at Number One Observatory Circle in northwestern Washington, D.C. was built in 1893. Originally intended for the superintendent of the USNO, the house was so lovely that in 1923, the chief of naval operations kicked out the superintendent so he could move in himself. Historically, Vice Presidents and their families lived in their own homes, but the cost of securing these private residences grew substantially over the years. Finally, in 1974, Congress agreed to refurbish the house at the Naval Observatory as a home for the Vice President.

Three years passed before any Vice President actually lived at Number One Observatory Circle. Vice President Gerald Ford acceded to the Presidency before he could use the home, and his Vice President, Nelson Rockefeller, only used it for entertaining. Walter Mondale was the first Vice President to move into the home. It has since been home to the families of Vice Presidents Bush, Quayle, Gore, Cheney, Biden, and Pence. 

Vice Presidents have welcomed countless guests to the residence, including foreign leaders and dignitaries. Still, the Naval Observatory has continued to operate. Scientists observe the sun, moon, planets, and selected stars, determine and precisely measure the time, and publish astronomical data needed for accurate navigation.

Credit : The White House

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The official residence of British Prime Ministers is number 10 Downing Street. It is in a sidestreet off Whitehall, near the Houses of Parliament.

It was built by Sir George Downing in 1680, and in 1738 George Il offered it to Sir Robert Walpole, who was Britain's first Prime Minister.

Next door, at number 11, lives the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

The building is much larger than it appears from its frontage. The hall with the chequered floor immediately behind the front door lets on to a warren of rooms and staircases. The house in Downing Street was joined to a more spacious and elegant building behind it in the early 18th century. Number 10 has also spread itself out to the left of the front door, and has taken over much of 12 Downing Street, which is accessed by a corridor that runs through 11 Downing Street – the official residence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

The area around Downing Street was home to ancient Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Norman settlements, and was already a prestigious centre of government 1,000 years ago.

The Romans first came to Britain under the command of Julius Caesar in 55 BC. Making their capital at Londinium downriver, the Romans chose Thorney Island – a marshy piece of land lying between two branches of the river Tyburn that flowed from Hampstead Heath to the Thames – as the site for their early settlement.

These Roman settlements, and those of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans who supplanted them, were not very successful. The area was prone to plague and its inhabitants were very poor. A charter granted by the Mercian King Offa in the year 785 refers to “the terrible place called Thorney Island”. It took royal patronage to give the area prestige. King Canute (reigned 1017 to 1035) built a palace in the area, and Edward the Confessor (reigned 1042 to 1066) and William the Conqueror (reigned 1066 to 1087) maintained a royal presence there. The position of Westminster (as the area became known) as the centre of government and the church was solidified following the construction of the great abbey nearby, on Edward's orders.

Credit : Gov.UK

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