My Science School

Coming to think of it, not everyone says "Yes" in the same way, though the meaning is the same - "I agree with you", "I shall do what you want me to", "What you say is right". all of which means you agree generally with the person you are speaking to. But do we say "Yes" in the same tone and pitch always? Certainly not. Read the following aloud using the punctuation as dues. You will see how the simple word "Yes" can express different ways of agreeing.

[1] Yes! [2] Yes, yes, yes! [3] Yes. [4] Yes. [5] Yes? [6] Yes, [7] Yes - [8] Yeeeees..

Form a question each for these eight ways of saying "Yes".

For example:

Question: Would you like a cup of ice cream?

Answer: Yes!

 "Yes" is a very old word. It entered English before 900 AD and comes from the Old English word "gese" meaning "may it be so." Before the 1600s, "yes" was often used only as an affirmative to a negative question ('You have not read the book?"), and "Year" was the all-purpose way to say "Yes." [Examples: "Will you marry me?", "Are you going abroad?" - "Yea') By the 1800s, "Yeah" was being used widely, and came to be labelled as an Americanism.

Popular substitutes

There is another aspect to saying "Yes." You can speak in the affirmative without captain. ["Aye, aye, captain!) It is a formal response meaning "yes" in the British House of Commons. It is also an I. Etymologists [those who study the saying "Yes." That is, you can say "Yes" using a variety of words and phrases that have no "yes" in them. Here is a list.

[1] Aye: You would have heard this word in movies where soldiers answer the accepted substitute for "Tea" in a voice vote in the U.S. House of Representatives. When it first entered English, it was often spelled origin of words) don't know where it came from, but it appeared suddenly in the late 1500s and is still with us.

[2] Indubitably: The word mean "indubitably", meaning "without doubt, has the prefix "in" which when added to words generally makes it negative. [active-inactive] "Indubitably” like many words with a negative prefix comes from the root dubitable. Strangely though, the negative version of the word has always been more popular than its root. Both "dubitably" and indubitably" come from the Latin word "dubitare" meaning "to doubt."

[3] OK, Okey: We generally associate the word "Ok" with Americans, but not everyone agrees "Ok" is an Americanism. But it is possible it came from the 1840 American presidential election in which political candidates jokingly mis-spelled the phrase "all correct" as "oll korrect" and then shortened it to "Okey" and "Ok". There are also stories that the word had its origin in military barracks and soldiers gave it this spelling, but we cannot say if that story is true.

An informal version of "Ok" is okey dokey". It is a goofy version really and you don't want to use it when you are serious about saying "Yes". No Okey dokey when you are asked, "Will you collect the hall-ticket from your teacher" The right answer to this is: "Yes, certainly." 

[4] Sure: The word "Sure" is related to the Old French word with the same spelling, which meant "safe" or "secure." Till the early 1500s, "Sure" meant "safe". In the mid-1500s, people began to use the word "sure" when they meant "certainly" and "indubitably." from which we get the phrases "to be sure" and "for sure“. Of course the phrase "sure thing” is without doubt an Americanism. It began to be used in the 1800s.

[4] Sure: The word "Sure" is related to the old French word with the same spelling, which meant "safe" or "secure" Till the early 1500s, "sure" meant "safe". In the mid-1500s, people began to use the word "sure" when they meant "certainly" and indubitably," from which we get the phrases "to be sure" and "for sure". Of course the phrase "sure thing" is without doubt an Americanism. It began to be used in the 1800s.

[5] Yeah: This common casual variation of "yes" arose in the early 20th century in America. It is said with a drawl (elongated way) and is often used sarcastically. Since the 1980s, its usage of "yeah" appeared in the 1960s and may be a variation on the word "hooray." However, it remains the least used among our "yes" alternatives. You hear this in sports stadiums when a match is going has risen dramatically, and is used widely in speech and writing.

 [6] Yay: This possible alternative spelling on, right?

[7] By all means: This affirmative means that it is an "yes" in every way possible. [Example: "Can we invite all the school leaders for the meeting?" "By all means."]

[8] Affirmative: People say "affirmative" when they want to say "yes" just because they feel very pleased with themselves. This form of saying "yes" is found mostly in North America, where you can also hear the phrase "in the affirmative." [Example: "The last time I asked you for permission to watch football, you replied in the affirmative.

[9] Roger. You heard this in movies when the soldiers are talking on the radio. "Roger" is used to acknowledge receipt of a message. Of course, no one can stop us from using it in casual conversation, and we have been doing so for quite some time. [Example: "Shall we order pizza for dinner today?" "Roger!" We feel well informed when we say that right?]

[10] Uh-huh: Saying "Yes" this way needs a bit of practice, since it is mostly sound with no history of its origin. This sound is a verbalised shrug, which can mean "yes" or "no". It is a non-committal way of saying 'Yes." ['You can do it, I really don't care.) When you say "uh-huh", you need to nod as well, to make your "Yes" clear.  

[11] Righto: This one is British. You can simply say "Right!" without the "o" in the end. But "Right" is informal and cheerful, don't you think?

[12] Very well. This is a very useful phrase to convey that you accept because you don't know what else to do. You are accepting something out of compulsion. Also out of exasperation. You are not excited about saying "yes" to the listener. Try saying this: "Oh, you want to use my mobile phone?  Very well then. Here it is."  

[13] Yup: 'Yup" and its variation 'Yep" are such a joy to say. This is because of the "p" in the end that gives it a strong emphasis. [It is called the "implosive "p".

Example: "Do you want to join the river cruise?" "Yep!)

[14] Right on: Even stronger than "Yep" is "Right on." You say "Right on!" when you want to convey an overwhelming sense of approval.

[15] Totally: Try saying this, it makes you feel so superior! [Example: "people have no idea about cleanliness!" "Totally!")

[16] Amen: This phrase goes all the way back to a Hebrew word, meaning "truth, certainty." It is usually said at the end of a prayer or hymn, and stands for "so be it." "Amen" is also used to express agreement or assent, sometimes in the form "Amen to that." There are others too. I have heard people say "No mistake, very much so!", "Certainly!", "Of course", and "You bet!" And now we have the emojis to help us say "Yes" without a single alphabet in the writing. Cool!

 

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Self-isolation, quarantine, work from home and social distancing have become the new normal due to the coronavirus pandemic. The global health scare and the unforeseen circumstances it presented have been a completely new experience for everyone. It has altered not just the way we live but also our vocabulary.

In a very short period of time, words such as COVID-19, a shortening of coronavirus disease 2019, sanitization and social distancing came to dominate our conservations. Some of these words are new coinages and others, previously less-known.

Noticing this, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the world’s biggest English language dictionary, updated its record of English language in April to include COVID-19 and terms related to it.

The April update was a rare move as the OED usually updates its record only four times a year.

Did you know?

Previous pandemics have also given rise to new vocabulary. Words such as “pestilence” a fatal epidemic or disease – came into use after the bubonic plague swept Europe between 1347 and 1351.

The adjective “self-quarantined” was first used in 1878 to describe the actions of the villagers of Eyam in the 17th Century, who isolated themselves to prevent the second wave of “Black Death” from spreading to surrounding villages.

Some others words that were added to the dictionary during the pandemic:

Social distancing

Social distancing was originally an attitude rather than a physical term. Now we all understand it as keeping a physical distance between ourselves and others to avoid infection.

Self-isolation

Self-imposed isolation to prevent catching or transmitting an infectious disease has become a popular term. But back in the 1800s, the term referred to countries that chose to detach themselves politically and economically from the rest of the world.

WFH

“Working (or work) from home, wither as a regular or permanent alternative to office work or on an occasional or temporary basis.”

Elbow bump

A gesture (usually of greeting or farewell) in which two people lightly tap their elbows together as an alternative to a handshake or embrace, in order to reduce the risk of spreading or catching an infectious disease.

PPE

Personal protection equipment is designed to provide the wearer or user protection against hazardous substances or environments, or to prevent transmission of infectious diseases. Formerly, the abbreviation was used only by healthcare and emergency professionals.

Infodemic

Infodemic (a portmanteau word from information and epidemic) is the outpouring of often unsubstantiated media and online information relating to a crisis.

 

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We all want to write – and write creatively. If you want your writing to shine, you should make sure it is original. It should read like it is fresh, not only in ideas, but also in the way you put them across. With your writing you should try to create a world of words. It doesn’t matter what you are writing – stories, letters, passages or simply answers to questions in a test, you need to make it readable and interesting. Some people say writing beautifully is a gift. Agreed, we cannot all write like our favourite authors (though we wish we could), but we can definitely enhance the beauty of what we write by following a few simple tips.

Add freshness to your writing

Our simple way to add freshness to your writing is to avoid repetition of words and phrases. When you want to write creatively, you need to look for new ways to clothe your ideas in. The best and the easiest access to this are the dictionaries and the thesaurus. Let’s look at some verbs we tend to repeat and find alternatives for them.

Said

Dialogues often form the most important parts of a story. We typically start dialogues/direct speech with the default “said.” I suspect that readers just skim over this overused word and move on to what is being said. But you can give the speech more strength and draw more attention to what is being said by substituting “said” with more meaningful words. For example:

He said, “I have to leave now.” She said, “No, you cannot go. The meeting is not over.” He said, “I have to, I will be late for the flight.” She said, “But this is important.”

Walked

“Walked” is another overused, common word. It adds nothing to creativity in writing, and readers will not bother to visualize the action you are describing. So why not “ambled, strolled, moved, shuffled, pushed, trudged , manoeuvred? Remember, the word “moved” when used often, can confuse the readers since it also means a mental state. “I was moved to tears by the performance.”

Paragraph 1: He walked through the crowd. He walked across the street slowly, trying not to push those around him. He walked, looking at the shops and walked on as if he did not have a care in the world.

Paragraph 2: He trudged through the crowd. He shuffled across the street slowly, trying not to push those around him. He ambled on, looking at the shops and moved as if he did not have a care in the world.

See how paragraph II tells you more about the state of the person when you use synonyms for “walked”?

Amazing

Oh, this is another word used for anything everywhere! Do you want to fill all your descriptive blanks with this one word? Plus, can a pizza, the unexpected ending of a story, a work of art, a monument, a guard’s bravery when confronting a thief – all be amazing on the same scale? The word loses its punch and gets your readers to yawn. Reach for the thesaurus now. What words can you choose to substitute “amazing” with?

Very

The adverb of degree “very” is now very flat. Adding it to show degree looks like lazy writing. Very disturbing, very normal, very beautiful, very annoying – very boring! Using it so much will not help to make your writing unique.

Try these instead, greatly, terribly, absolutely (another overused word), remarkably, notably, eminently, honestly, neatly.

But when it comes to adverbs, I prefer to use them to the minimum. It is better to allow the narrative speak for itself, without help from adverbs.

Nice

My English teacher would always circle the word “nice” in our answers and reduce marks for poor writing.

“Everything cannot be labeled as “nice”, she taught us. “Find appropriate synonyms!”

We did. A whole lot of them like pleasant, pleasing, satisfying, acceptable, delightful, enjoyable, pleasurable, congenial, fine, delicate, precise, meaningful. When we used these other words our descriptions were precise, accurate, and gave the reader a better sense of the object/idea we were describing.

Look

This is an overused basic verb. Happily, there are so many synonyms and substitutes for this word that you will always find one that is appropriate to the action you are describing. Find one that is exciting! Here is a list: glance, notice, peer, stare, study, watch, view, note, and glimpse.

 

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A marketing salesman was on a mission to find out if his product would sell in European countries – both east and west. As he travelled, he met with one major problem. Every country spoke a different language – German, French, Armenia, Dutch, Swedish, Spanish and a whole lot more. He solved it through a simple method. He would go into a restaurant call out, “Does anyone speak English here?” someone would, and he would get the information he needed. This went on for weeks, till he came to an eatery in a new place. He asked his question. The answer was, “Why sir, yes! This is England!” The poor salesman could have had an easier time – if only all these countries spoke the same language! And there is such a language called Esperanto. It is a world language, created to make communication among people from different countries easy. It was created some hundred years ago. According to language scholar Axel Belinfante, the fact that Esperanto has been around for so many years shows that it is a living language, capable of expressing all human thought.

A look at its history

Esperanto was created in 1887 by Dr. LL Zamenhof. He wanted it to be taught as second language so that people speaking different native languages could communicate. This arrangement would ensure that people did not forget their language or lose their cultural identity.

Zamenhof grew up in Bialystok, Poland, where different groups of people spoke different languages and followed different cultural practices. And they all lived inside Poland! Travelling and understanding one another within the same country was problematic! To solve this strange situation, he created his common language. He made it logical with a regular design so anyone could learn it.

The full name for Esperanto is Doktoro Esperanto. “Esperanto” translates to “one who hopes” [from the verb “esperi” (to hope)] and is drawn from the pseudonym LL Zamenhof, the creator of Esperanto, used when he published his first book on the language called Unua Libro in 1887. Most Esperanto root words are taken from Italian, French, German and English. A select few words come from Latin, Greek, Lithuanian Russian and Polish, as well. This connection is what makes Esperanto so useful in studying any of these European languages.

How will learning Esperanto help us?

It makes sense

Esperanto has 16 regular rules of grammar and a regular phonetic spelling. There are no exceptions to these rules. You can apply these rules constantly without hurdles. In English “do” and “go” are pronounced differently, though both have an “o” after a consonant. Esperanto is learned quickly and easily, compared to a lot of languages.

You can be a Polyglot

A polyglot is a person who speaks four or more languages. Studies have shown that students who learn Esperanto as a secondary language find it easy to learn a third language. The logic is Esperanto opens the logic (or otherwise) in all languages.

You’ll make new friends

If you know Esperanto, you get to know more people from across the world. You learn Esperanto because you want to have international friends. Esperanto magazines which columns that have many members practising the language.

You will travel widely

If you know Esperanto well, you will want to use it, right? And you can use it anywhere in the world! You can join the educated crowd in any part of the educated globe – from Alaska to Australia. Imagine staying with Esperantists overseas and getting to go round their country with them. Knowing the common world language gives you the advantage of staying anywhere, a small village in Italy to a large city in Kenya. You can connect with Esperantists of the world in a number of ways. For example, Pasporta Servo, an international network of Esperanto speakers run by the World Esperantist Youth Organization.

 

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Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday in the United States. There are many accounts about how it all began. Here is a popular version from history.com.

In September 1620, a small ship called Mayflower left Plymouth, England, carrying 102 passengers. They consisted of religious separatists looking for a new home where they could practice their faith freely and other individuals lured by the promise of prosperity and land ownership in the New World. After 66 days of enormous difficulties, they dropped anchor near the tip of Cape Cod in the northern part of the USA. One month later, Mayflower crossed Massachusetts Bay, where the Pilgrims, as they are now commonly known, began the work of establishing a village at Plymouth.

Throughout their first winter, most of the colonists remained on board the ship. They suffered from exposure, scurvy and outbreaks of contagious disaeses. Only half of the Mayflower’s original passengers and crew survived. In March, the remaining settlers went ashore. They were astonished when an Abenaki Indian came and greeted them in English. He brought another native American, Squanto, a member of the Pawtuxet tribe. This man had been kidnapped by an English sea captain and sold into slavery. He escaped to London and returned to his homeland on an expedition. Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to cultivate corn, extract sap from maple trees, catch fish in the rivers and avoid poisonous plants. He also helped the settlers forge an alliance with the Wampanog, a local tribe.

In November 1621, the Pilgrims’ first corn harvest turned successful. Governor William Bradford organized a celebratory feast and invited a group of natives, including the Wampanoag chief Massasoit. This event is now remembered as America’s “first Thanksginving”. The festival lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who traced the voyage of the Pilgrims wrote that the menu of the feast included fowl, deer and fruit. There was no dessert because native Americans did not bake.

Pilgrims held their second Thanksgiving celebration in 1623. This was to mark the end of a long drought. Thanksgiving on an annual or occasional basis became common practice in other New England settlements as well.

In 1789, George Washington issued the first Thanksgiving proclamation by the national government of the United States. He asked Americans to express their gratitude for the success in the country’s war of independence and the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. His successors John Adams and James Madison continued the celebrations.

In 1817, New York became the first state to adopt an annual Thanksgiving holiday. Other states followed, but mostly in the north of the country. The American South remained largely unfamiliar with the tradition.

In 1827, magazine editor and author Sarah Hale launched a campaign to establish Thankgiving as a national holiday. For 36 years, she published editorials and sent letters to governors, senators, presidents and other politicians. She came to be known as the “Mother of Thanksgiving.”

Abraham Lincoln finally heeded her request in 1863. At the height of the Civil War, he requested Americans to ask God to “commend to his tender care all those who have become widows, orphans, mourners or suffers in the lamentable civil strife” and to “heal the wounds of the nation.” He scheduled Thanksgiving for the final Thursday in November, and it was celebrated on that day every year.

In 1939, the month of November started on a Wednesday and there were five Thursdays. President Franklin Roosevelt moved the Thanksgiving day to the second last Thursday, saying this gave people more time to shop, and traders the opportunity to close shop early in the season and open them well in time for Christmas shopping. One of the fall-outs of this change in the date was the birth of Black Friday – a day when people go crazy shopping since everything is available at a discount.

In 1940, November had only four Thursdays. However, Thanksgiving was announced to be on the Thursday before the last one. The change in the date had stuck. Reports say that in 1941, the President admitted that the switch was a mistake. Too late! The calenders had been printed marking the third Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day. All right said President Roosevelt. What cannot cannot be changed must be endured, so he made the change permanent, by signing a bill making Thanksgiving Day fall on the fourth Thursday of November, whether it was the last Thursday of the month or not.

Words and the day

Now look at some of the words associated with the festival and the legends behind them.

Cornucopia

At Thanksgiving lunch, people place a giant horn-shaped basket full of fruits and vegetables in the middle of the table. It is formally known as “cornucopia” or the Horn of Plenty. The word comes from the Latin cornu, meaning “horn,” and copiae, meaning “of plenty”. The Greek god Zeus is said to have been fed by the food-filled horn of the goat Amalthea when he was a baby. Another myth says Hercules ripped off the horn of a river god in a wrestling match. Then the nymphs turned it into a cornucopia full of fruit and flowers to commemorate his triumph. In The Hunger Games, you see the horn-shaped cache of weapons called “Horn of Plenty.”

Cold turkey

Meaning: wholly and suddenly.

Gobble up

Meaning: to eat/use something very quickly and eagerly;

Turkey Trot

Meaning: a fun long-distance run or foot-race in a turkey costume that is held on or around Thanksgiving Day in the U.S.

Tofurkey

Meaning: the combination of the words “tofu” and “turkey”, i.e. a vegetarian version of turkey usually made from tofu (soybean protein) or seitan (wheat protein) with a stuffing made from grains or bread.

 

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Heard this carol?

Have you heard/sung the song Twelve Days of Christmas? Even if you have, check out the John Denver and the Muppets version. It is fun!

December 25 marks the official start of 12 days of Christmas. And this Christmas carol tells us what those twelve days are about.

In Christian belief, the 12 days of Christmas mark the period between the birth of Christ and the coming of the Magi, the three wise men. It ends on January 6 (Epiphany or Three King’s Day). The four weeks preceding Christmas are described as Advent, which begins four Sundays before Christmas and ends on December 24.

In the carol, the singer brags about all the wonderful gifts the group received from their “true love” during the 12 days of Christmas. Each verse is an addition to the previous one, and the song gets longer and longer. The lyrics to “The 12 Days of Christmas” have changed over the years.

The one below is the most popular version.

On the first day of Christmas,

My true sent to me

A partridge in a pear tree.

The song then adds a gift for each day, building on the verse before it, until you sing of all 12 gifts together.

Day 2: two turtle doves, Day 3: three French hens, Day 4: four calling birds, Day 5: five gold rings, Day 6: six geese a-laying, Day 7: seven swans a-swimming, Day 8: eight maids a-milking, Day 9: nine ladies dancing, Day 10: 10 lords a-leaping, Day 11: 11 pipers piping, Day 12: twelve drummers drumming.

The song first appeared in a 1780 children’s book called Mirth With-out Mischief. Some historians think it was first sung in French. Whatever the language, it is a “memory” game, in which singers try to remember the lyrics and lose points if they make a mistake.

An English composer, Frederic Austin is credited with the version most of us are familiar with. In 1909, he set the melody and lyrics. When you sing the stretched “five go-old rings”, you should remember him. It was his idea.

Now let’s see why these gifts were chosen.

Partridge in a pear tree

It is not likely that you will find a partridge in a pear tree. Partridges are ground-nesting birds, and avoid flying high to perch in pear trees. The word “partridge” comes “perdix,” the Greek word for the bird. This in turn comes from a verb meaning “to break wind”, which refers to the sound of the wings as the bird takes off.

Two turtledoves

The turtledove is a bird and the word is used to refer to a beloved one. The “turtle” in the name is based on the Latin turtur that sounds like the bird’s distinctive call.

Turtledoves live in pairs, which show affection for the mate. This bond between birds has been described in Literature. In his poem of 1601 “The Phoenix and the Turtle”, Shakespeare refers to a tale of love between a phoenix and a turtledove.

Three French hens

We don’t know why people will give chicken as a Christmas gift, but poulets de Bresse (Bresse chicken) is a sought-after French hen, so the receiver may accept the three French hens. The word hen comes from the Old English hen(n), and is related to the Latin canere, “to sing,” so it is appropriate to be added to a carol.

Four calling birds

Most of us sing this line as “calling birds,” but in a 1780 version of this song, the line was “colly birds.” Around the time this song was published, “colly” in British dialects meant “dirty, grimy or coal black.” Frederic Austin’s 1909 version of “Twelve Days of Christmas” replaced colly with calling.

Five golden rings

We know what gold means. It stands for the valuable metal, and is form an ancient (Proto-Indo-European) root meaning “to shine.” This same root ultimately gives the word yellow, another meaning for “golden.” In the song, this lyric was originally “gold rings”, rather than “golden rings.”

Six geese a-laying

Birds again! But goose because it stands for a variety of things. It can refer to “the female web-footed swimming bird,” “a foolish person,” or “a poke in the back to startle someone.” There is also the idiom wild-goose chase, which refers to “a wild or absurd search for something unattainable.”

Seven swans a-swimming

It is comforting to know that the seventh day gift of seven swans are swimming and not singing! Swans do not have a voice that will get them to be included in the Christmas choir, so it is good these raucous birds will glide in the water and perhaps keep quiet.

The word swan means “the singing bird,” and is related to the Old English geswin, which means “melody, song” and swinsian, which means “to make melody.”

Eight maids a-milking

Since this song’s appearance in the late 1700s, “milk” in its verb form has stood for a range of actions, mostly shady. In card games, “to milk the pack” means “to shadily deal cards by pulling them from both the top and bottom of the deck.” “To milk at the horse race” was “to throw a horse race.” In the late 1800s, milk meant “to bug a telephone.”

Nine ladies dancing

The word “lady” is from the Old English hlaefdige, thought to literally mean “loaf-kneader” or, more broadly, “wife of a lord.” It entered English in the 1300s. The word dance comes from the Old French dancier. People preferred it to the Old English word for dance, sealtian.

Ten lords a-leaping

The word “lord” comes from the Old English word hlafweard, which literally meant “loaf-keeper.” Remember, “lady” means “loaf-kneader.” The origins of these words tell us about a social structure where wives made the bread and husbands guarded it. Of course today both can be breadwinners.

Eleven pipers piping

The word pipe, as a verb, meaning “to play on a pipe,” can be traced back to the Latin pipare, meaning “to peep, chirp.” It also means “to make a shrill sound like a pipe,” “to lead or bring by playing a pipe,” and, in baking, “to force dough or frosting through a pastry tube.”

Twelve drummers drumming

The word “drum” is the back formation of the longer word drumslade, alteration of the Dutch or Low German word trommelslag, which meant “drum beat.”

 

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What is a précis?

A précis, in general terms, is a shortened form of a passage. It should be clear, compact and logical, and it should not reduce the beauty of the original passage. It is a condensed version that conveys the thoughts in the original passage. The dictionary defines it as a “concise summary”. A précis keeps all the important ideas of the original passage. It is a kind of shorthand for the passage.

How does it help you?

Practice in précis writing helps you to improve your skills in reading. It helps you to write to the point. It helps you to write only what is necessary and it helps you to choose the right words and phrases.

Where do we come across précis writing?

• Newspaper headlines – Safety Meeting Ends in Accident


• Tag lines of articles and lessons – The True Story of a Real Fake


• Opening paragraph of a newspaper story, lecture or notes – Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.


• Advertisements – Just do it

Steps to follow

1. Read the whole passage carefully. Read it twice – once to understand what the passage is about. The second time, separate the major points from the minor ones. What can be left out?


2. Recognize the author’s tone and viewpoint. Is he saying “yes”? Is he saying “no”?


3. Re-read the passage if necessary for clear comprehension (understanding) of ideas.


4. Write in direct, assertive language. You are not arguing your points or explaining them. You are just stating them. Use statement (declarative sentences). Don’t refer to the author (“Tagore said that…”), just state directly what the author said.


5. Underline key phrases, make notes in the margin.


6. Observe the emphasis (what does the author feel strongly about?) used by the author.


7. Understand the importance of ideas that the author develops with the use of supporting facts and examples.


8. Do not use the specific examples, figures of speech or quotations cited by the author in your précis.


9. When you are selecting ideas from a passage, ask yourself the following question: If this idea were omitted, would the basic meaning of the passage be changed?

What should I remember?

The goal is to communicate to the reader (and yourself) the main thesis and the major points in the most succinct form.

• Be alert to what is being said in the passage.


• Keep the author’s viewpoint in mind. Respect what he says in the passage.


• Learn to distinguish between major and minor points.


• Learn to emphasise what is important and leave out the fluff.

How exactly do I write the précis?

1. Try to limit your précis to no more than 1/3 the length of the original passage.


2. Use clear, factual expressions, do not attempt to copy the style of the original source.


3. Do not copy a single sentence from the article! You may use the author’s key words and phrases only when they are technical. Understand exactly what the author means, and there is really no better way than to write it in your own words.


4. Do not introduce ideas of your own. Do not criticize or change the author’s ideas. This is not your writing. You are just condensing the passage for the reader.

The final checklist:

1. Is it a correct summary of the key points?


2. Is it comprehensive, touching on all the key points?


3. Is it efficient, saying a lot in a brief way?


4. Is the presentation clear to the reader?


5. Is the writing – grammar, spelling, etc, correct?

How to go about it

Look at a simple example of précis writing

Today there are 6000 million people in the world. Fifty years ago only about 2000 million people lived in it. If Earth’s population were evenly distributed over its land surface, there would be about 1000 persons to the square mile. But Earth has vast areas of forest, mountains and desert which are almost totally uninhabited. On the other hand, it has great cities each with millions of people living in a few square miles. To feed the fast-growing population of our earth, scientists and planners have to discover new ways to produce more. One possible way is to bring more land under cultivation. This can be done only in places where there is a lot of land not used for agricultural purposes. In many places this is no longer possible as all the arable land is already cultivated. A second way is to make use of new types of seeds to produce more. Already a number of new strains of paddy and wheat have been developed in different parts of the world. India is one of the countries where a lot of useful work has been done in the field of agriculture research. (193 words)

Step 1: underline key words or ideas

Step 2: write notes

• Increase in world population in last fifty years


• Population feeding solutions


• What has been done

Step 3: Use your own words to express these key ideas more concisely and to develop a paragraph (of one-third of the length) which conveys the original message accurately and is clear, concise and coherent.

The Précis

World Population and Food Production

During the last fifty years, the world population has increased from 2000 to 6000 million. It is unevenly distributed with millions of people living in a few big cities. Scientists in India and abroad are, therefore, busy with agriculture research to find out new methods of increasing food production to feed them all and they have already developed many new strains of paddy and wheat. (65 words)

 

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Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a particle) to form phrases. Have you come across the phrase “give in”?

These two-part verbs, also called phrasal verbs, are different from the verbs and their helpers (am going) we use to show tenses. The particle and the verb together (the phrasal verb) have a meaning that is often different from the meaning of the verb alone. T he meaning is often idiomatic.

Example: “put” means to place. But add “off” to “put” and what do you get? Phrasal verb “put off” means “to postpone”. You must have a good understanding of phrasal verbs to follow most of the writing you come across.

A phrasal verb is a compound word. A preposition (on, in, at) or an adverb (up, down) is added to a verb to form a phrasal verb. The addition of a particle produces a verb phrase with a new meaning.

Example: carry on – continue – carry out – fulfil, implement.

Sometimes, a verb may take two particles, both the preposition and the adverb. Example: We have run out of ideas.

Phrasal verbs may also be split – a pronoun may find a place between the verb and the particle.

Example: Lock it up, look them up the same as the verb of the phrasal verb may be the same as the verb or it may be completely different.

Examples: He gave out the answers. (announced)

He gave in to their demands. (accepted, surrendered)

 

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Was the French toast invented in France? O one is sure. One story is that, during medieval times, state bread was reused by dipping it in batter and toasting it. But we do not know if the French cooks were the first to dip and fry bread. A similar dish, suppe borate, was popular in England during the middle Ages. There is also the story of Joseph French, an innkeeper in Albany. New York. In 1724, he advertised the fried toast as “French Toast.” Grammatically, he should have said, “French Toast.” But he had not learnt to use apostrophes. The dish is called pain perdu in French, meaning “lost bread” because it is recycled or “lost” bread. What is really “lost” is the origin of this popular breakfast dish.

 

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Did you know that the popular circle-shaped food item that can be sweet or savory was once spelt “pye”? This is a highly respected backed dish, whose history can be traced all the way back to ancient Greece and Rome. Today, the pastry-based pie is generally sweet, but it was once mostly made with a salty taste. There was a reason for this. This crisp crust of the pie, when baked, helped to preserve the meat the pie was filled with.

Have you tasted the apple pie?

Americans claim it is their “own” dish. “There are few things as American as apple pie.” They say. A, but the original apple pie recipes came from England. The original pies were made with unsweetened apples and were put in a cover that had to be thrown away. Yet the apple pie became popular. The first reference to this baked desert appeared in 1589, in the poem Menaphon by poet E. Greece: “They breath is like the steeme of apple pies."

 

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Now that the waffle-maker is available in stores, you can make crisp and “hole-y” waffles at home! This breakfast food item made with a beautiful pattern has an interesting back story. Ancient Greeks used a tool that resembled today’s waffle iron to make cakes, and the earliest European settles in Greece brought this to the New Americas. Waffles also arrived in the U.S. with the Pilgrims (check out who they are). These famous travelers had tasted this breakfast filler in Holland en route to Massachusetts. Thomas Jefferson, the former U.S. President reportedly brought a waffle iron home from France around 1789. Well, he served waffles to his guests and sparked a fad for waffle parties in the U.S. In the 1930s, a California family smartly combined instant waffle mix and electricity (for the waffle iron) to mass-produce waffles.

 

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In the mid-19th century, the Dutch were making ‘olykoeks” or oily cakes, balls of cake fried in park fat. These were sweet snacks. The cooks had a problem because the centre of the cakes would not get cooked completely. So they would stuff the centre with fruits or buts, which required no cooking. Another story refers to what Elizabeth Gregory, a New England ship captain’s mother did. She would prepare the dough and pack it for the boat crew going on long voyages. She stuffed the dough with hazelnuts or walnuts and referred to the treats as doughnuts. Her son, Captain Hanson Gregory said he invented the familiar ring shape in 1847, while abroad his ship. The middle of the doughnut was raw, so he punched a hole through the centre with the ship’s tin pepper box. The hole increased the doughnuts’ exposure to the hot oil and ensured that the doughnut was cooked throughout. “I produced the doughnut hole!” claimed Gregory. Another sailor’s story?

 

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The word “Pizza” was recorded in English in the early 1800s. English lexicographer John Florio described the pizza as “a small cake or wafer” in his 1598 Italian-English dictionary. The word “pizza” comes from Italian. Some think the Greek pitta (pita, or “bran bread”) is the source of the word. Others say it is from the Langubardic (an ancient German language in northern Italy) bizzo, meaning “bite”.

The modern pizza-an open-faced pie filled with tomato sauce and mozzarella cheese-was first made by baker Raffaele Esposito in Naples. In 1889, he made a patriotic pie topped with mozzarella, basil, and tomatoes, ingredients in the colours of the Italian flag, in honour of king Umberto and Queen Margherita’s visit. It is said the Queen enjoyed the pie, and the dish has since been known as Margherita. In the U.S., Italian immigrants sold pizza in their stores, and the first pizzeria was opened in 1905 by Gennaro Lombardi on Spring Street in New York City. During World War II. American and European soldiers stationed in Italy tasted pizza and continued to eat it when they returned home.

 

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On 29 April of this year, the Indian Army tweeted pictures of large footprints in the snow of the upper reaches of the Himalayas. This started of the old debate. Are there Yetis – the abominable snowmen in the Himalayan ranges? There has been no evidence of Yetis roaming in the mountains. The footprints photographed so far have been proved to be those of large bears. But we humans like stories of fantasy. We loved reading about the Yeti rescuing and protecting Tintin. And we all believe that one day these creatures of our minds will turn out to be real.

What are these “legendary creatures that we hope to see one day?

The Abominable Snowmen

It is a man-like beast that has been mentioned in Buddhist stories. The Lepchas (a Himalayan tribe) recognised a supernatural “Glacier Being” as one of their hunting gods and the ruler of all the forests’ creatures. Yeti is a recent version of this goal. The word comes from a Sherpa word, “yeh-the” meaning “small, man-like animal” or meti meaning “bear.” The sherpas depicted it as a man-like figure that left large tracks of its feet in the snow. They probably wanted the creature to be scary because they wanted to protect the children from wandering into the unknown areas around. It is something like the “Poochandi” that parents talk of it get children to obey.

Why is the snowman “Abominable”? There is an interesting story behind it. In 1921, a reporter interviewed explorers returning from the British Mount Everest Reconnaissance Expedition. The mountaineers said they had probably belonged to Metoh-Kangmi. Kangmi translates to “Snowman” and Metoh to “Man-Bear”. The writer interpreted the word “metoh” as “filthy.” He thought it would not be right to call the snowman “filthy” so changed it to “abominable” in his report. The name stuck.

Bigfoot

Bigfoot is a creature that was originally called Sasquatch. This is imagined to be a large, shaggy primate. It is supposed to walk upright like a man. Yeti belongs to Asia, Bigfoot is thought to be native to North America, specifically to be Pacific Northwest. Tales of ape-like wild men roaming in the region were told by tribal communities. “Sasquatch” is derived from sesquac, a Halkomelem word meaning “wild man”. The name “Bigfoot” is a 20th century word for the creature.

Who coined the word “Bigfoot”? Again a reporter. In 1958, a man noticed large, unidentifiable footprints near his bulldozer in Bluff Creek, California. He made a cast of the prints and showed it around. A reporter of a local newspaper wrote a story about this. People read the story and began referring to the unknown owner of the massive tracks as “Big Foot.” The writer of the article spelled it “Bigfoot,” and the name stuck. “Bigfoot” became part of the English dictionary.

Leshy

Leshy is a mythical European creature that is said to wander across the woods looking for young women to kidnap. Leshy is thought of as a forest spirit that looks very much like a human being, with pale white skin and bright green eyes. How do you distinguish it from others you know with pale skin and green eyes? You can because Leshy has no eyebrows, eyelashes and right ear.

Aswang

In the Philippines, the “abominable” creature is called Aswang. It is portrayed as a cross between a werewolf and a vampire. The word “Aswang” comes from the Sanskrit “asura,” meaning “demon.”

Yowie

Yowie is Australian’s answer to the Sasquatch. Of all the bigfoot-like cryptids (imaginary creatures), the Yowie is at the top for aggression. In the tales about it, it is described as a demon that tears off the head of small creatures like a dog or kangaroo. Yes, they do attack humans as well. Be armed when you wander in the outbacks of Australia, in the warning against the Yowie.

Mapinguari

Brazil in south America is the home of Mapinguari. It is a sloth-like humanoid. Some reports say the Mapinguari has a large mouth in the middle of its stomach. That’s weird, right? And this creature is supposed to inhabit the Amazon forests.

Chupacabra

Chupacabra Spanish for “goat-sucker” – is a gargoyle. It is wolf-like in appearance. But go to Puerto Rico, people will tell you it walks on two feet. Its Mexican avatar is supposed to suck the blood of goats. But the Puerto Rican chupacabra relishes all the yard animals.

 

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From the dictionary

First, let's go through the Macmillan dictionary.

[1]. fledged: (of a young bird) having wing feathers that are large enough for flight; able to fly. As in "a recently fledged bird."

[2] flightless: a bird that cannot fly even though it has wings.

[3] great: "Great" has its own meaning in bird vocabulary. It is used in the names of birds or animals that are Larger than related, birds or animals. As in the "Great horned owl."

[4] gregarious: gregarious animals or birds Live in groups

[5] Lesser: it is used in the names of some animals, birds, or plants to show that they are a smaller type. As in the "lesser egret."

[6]migratory: a migratory bird or animal is one that migrates - moves to another place for warmth, food and,

shelter during certain months.

[7] webbed: if a bird or animal has webbed feet, it has skin between its toes to help it to swim well. Or web-footed: with toes that are joined by a piece of skin. As in the "web-footed-frog ."

[8] common: it is used in the names of birds and animals when there are more of them than related birds and animals.

Now let’s see how birds are often described.

young, wild, migratory, sea, white, smaller, aquatic, rare, black, native, mate, tropical, exotic, stuffed., larger, insectivorous, older, immature, tiny, flightless, predatory, blue, coloured, domestic, marine, caged, game, canary, winged, nesting, migrant, adult, sub-adult, coloured, nocturnal., brown, yellow, captive, humming, giant, happy, hungry, shore, sick

The flight of birds

Writer Liam O Flynn lists these steps for describing the flight of bids. He tells you how each bird has its unique method of flying and therefore needs a different set of words to describe it. "If you need to describe the flight of birds, it is best to divide them into separate categories of motion. For example, an eagle has a different flight pattern to a swallow." He says there are over 58,000 words to help you, with your descriptive and divides birds into 7 different types based, on their movement.

Eagle: He was gliding through the air. He was soaring far above vs. He was sailing through the air.

Blackbird: He raced away from me. His wings were whirring at a furious rate. His wings were a flurry of motion.

Swallow: He was cutting through the air. He was flitting through the air'. He was skimming through the air.                                            Peregrine falcon: He swooped down on his victim. He plunged towards the ground. He dive-bombed his prey from a great height.                Kestrel:He was hanging in the air. He was hovering in the air. (Gerard Manley Hopkins named him the windhover). He was loitering the air and scanning the ground below.

Vulture: He was circling in the car. He was drifting in the car. He was climbing the thermals and going out of sight.

Seagull: He was lazing in the car. He was swimming through the car. He was cruising through the air.

A narrator’s thoughts

The seaside provides us with multi-sensory nourishment. But first you have to get past the seagulls. Such inelegant birds who haven’t had their train of thought broken by these pirates of the sky? You are just about to describe the smells from the far away villas when what was that? Was that actually the sound of squawking and quarrelling on this most blissful of mornings?

Then they ghost into view. They use the sun to hide their approach, but the noise they make is unmistakable. First one, then two, then a whole multitude of the troublemakers. They are after the breakfast roll you dutch tighter in your hand and you are up against it as these are a determined enemy. They sail and glide towards you, first, using the sun as a shield, and approaching in silent mode for the attack. The first one that you can make out properly is googling you with his cannibal’s eye, searching for your weaknesses. When he has established that you are [a victim], he makes his move. Tucking his wines in to himself, he swoops towards you like an avenging angel of death.

As you are bracing yourself his attack, the rest of the mob have circled in behind you and one of them has peaked at your hand trying to dislodge the roll.. Instinct has made you swipe at him and the blow lands on his soft body, scattering the rest and, throwing feathers into the car. He screams at you now, beating his wings furiously a few feet above your head. Pirate one has used this distraction to dive bomb your head and you feel the sharp end of one of his claws on your scalp. You now have an angry horde of seagulls flapping, whirling, swooping and plunging above your head. You are leaping up and down, with a large bacon, and sausage roll in your hand, and screaming vile curses at some birds. You put the roll inside your shirt. It is becoming a symbol of your resolve.

They increase the ferocity of their attack. They scream and circle, screech and plummet, all the while with wings a-flurry probing for weakness. Their beaks are sharp, their claws rip at you. They come at you from every angle, jabbing at your head and with their wings beating the air. They arrow down towards you in an unending wave of brazen attacks. You concede defeat. You sink to your knees and reach for the roll. You can smell the delicious waft of mustard and ketchup inside it as you throw it violently into the air. It never reaches the ground because these vampires of the beach are attacking it in a frenzy of barbarian proportions.

 

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