My Science School

Princess Olga lived between 890 and 969, and was the first female Russian ruler. For almost twenty years, she ruled Kievan Rus. Her very first act as a ruler was to take bloody revenge against the Drevlians, the people who had killed her husband, Prince Igor. Olga took revenge on the Drevlians by having their envoys killed, and their towns burned. She then abolished the annual tribute-collecting journeys made by the Kievan princes, and replaced it with a uniform system of taxation and special government tax-collectors.

Princess Olga’s son was only three years old, when his father died. So, Olga ruled the country in his name, with the full support of the army. She was a very active ruler who travelled incessantly around the country, trying to improve life in her realm. Around 957, Olga travelled to Constantinople and was baptized in the Christian faith, under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor. Her baptism did not lead to the conversion of her people, but established the Eastern Orthodox Church in Russia.

In fact, she was the very first ruler of Kiev who converted to Christianity. The Orthodox Church proclaimed Olga a saint. Did you know that the name ‘Olga’ actually means ‘a saint’? So it seems as though she was destined to become one from the time she was named! 

                Queen Victoria was only 18, when she came to the throne of Britain, and she reigned for 64 years. In fact, she ruled for so long that her reign became known as the Victorian era.

                At the age of 21, Victoria married her cousin, Albert of Saxe-Coburg, Gotha, a German Prince. Victoria had nine children, 40 grand-children and 37 great-grandchildren, scattered all over Europe. Most of Queen Victoria’s children married into other royal families of Europe.

               Whilst Victoria was queen, there was a tremendous change in the lives of British people: Britain became the most powerful country in the world, with the largest empire that had ever existed, ruling a quarter of the world’s population.

                The number of people living in Britain more than doubled, causing a huge demand for food, clothing and housing. As a result, factories and machines were built to meet this demand, and new towns grew up, changing the landscape and the ways people lived and worked. Railways, originally built to transport goods, now enabled people to travel easily around the country for the first time. In short, Queen Victoria oversaw huge changes in British society ... is it any wonder that she gave her name to an age? 

Harriet Beecher Stowe was born in Connecticut, U.S.A., into a large family. She was named after her aunt, Harriet Foote, who influenced deeply her thinking, especially with her strong belief in culture. In 1834, Stowe began her literary career when she won a prize contest of the Western Monthly Magazine. Soon, Stowe was a regular contributor of stories and essays. Her first book, ‘The May flower’, appeared in 1843.

Stowe published over 30 books, but her most famous book is undoubtedly the children’s book ‘Uncle Tom’s Cabin’. It is the story of a pious slave called Uncle Tom, and Stowe’s book is very important, because it showed the nation how cruel the system of slavery was. Uncle Tom’s Cabin became an instant best seller, and millions of copies of the book have been sold.

          Jane Austen had a life long love of literature, and began writing at an early age. She was one of eight children of a clergyman, and grew up in a close-knit family. At 15, she was writing plays and sketches for the amusement of her family, and by the time she was 21, she had begun to write novels that are among the finest in English literature. Her books set among the English middle and upper classes, are notable for their wit, social observation and insights into the lives of early 19th century women.

          Jane’s first novel, ‘Sense and Sensibility’, appeared in 1811. Her next novel ‘Pride and Prejudice’, received highly favourable reviews. ‘Mans-field Park’ was published in 1814, then ‘Emma’ in 1816. In 1816, Jane began to suffer from ill-health, and she died a year later. Two more of her novels, ‘Persuasion’ and ‘Northanger Abbey’ were published after her death, and a final novel was left incomplete.

          Jane Austen is considered one of the best woman authors of all time. Her homey realism was a change from the melodramatic fiction being written at the turn of the eighteenth century. Her writing is described as a comedy of manners in middle-class England, and her works were, and still are, hugely popular.

Mary Wollstonecraft was an English philosopher and writer. Her life was not an easy one. Her father was often violent and reckless with money. He also showed a marked preference for her brother, which made her life at home quite miserable. As a result, she became an early feminist who denied male supremacy, and advocated equal education and opportunities for women. She was one of the first people to argue for gender equality, and is best remembered for her work ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Woman,’ written in 1792. She led a radical and exciting life, mainly in London, but with significant time in France during the Revolution, and with life-changing visits to Ireland, Lisbon, Derbyshire, and Scandinavia.

Mary was an inspiring teacher and an innovative educationalist, arguing for equal education for girls and boys. She drew out the spirit and curiosity of children without stifling them. Later, she created a career for herself as a writer, one of the first women to do so, starting off with reviews and translations. For a long time, Mary supported her parents, brothers and sisters with the money she earned from her writing. She was truly a one woman revolution in herself! 

                Elizabeth was the daughter of King Henry VIII, and his second wife Anne Boleyn. She came to the throne only after much turmoil, on 17th November 1558. Elizabeth was dedicated to her country in a way few monarchs had been, or have been since. She had the mind of a political genius, and nurtured her country through careful leadership and by choosing capable men to assist her. In appearance she was extravagant, in behaviour sometimes flippant and frivolous, but her approach to politics was serious, conservative, and cautious. When she ascended the throne, England was an impoverished country torn apart by religious squabbles. When she died at Richmond Palace on the 24th March 1603, England was one of the most powerful and prosperous countries in the world. 

Catherine the Great was a German princess. She married Prince Carl Peter Ulrich, the heir to the Russian throne. Being a bright personality with a strong sense of determination, she joined the Russian Orthodox Church, learned the Russian language, and by doing a lot of reading, acquired a brilliant education.

In June 1762, Catherine took an active part in a coup against her husband Emperor Peter III. He was overthrown, and soon killed ‘in an accident’, while Catherine became Russia’s autocratic ruler. Throughout her long reign, many reforms were undertaken, and the territory of Russia was further extended by acquiring the lands of Southern Ukraine and the Crimea. She promoted westernization and modernization as well as education. She was one of the greatest of Russian rulers, and hence her title, Catherine the Great. During her reign, Catherine continued the reforms begun by Peter the Great that ultimately led to the emergence of Russia onto the worldwide stage of politics.

           Catherine de Medici played an important part in the history of sixteenth century France. She had a sad childhood, for both her parents died when she was just a year old. She was brought up by nuns, who trained and disciplined her. As she grew older, she became very well-educated.

            Catherine married King Henri II of France and had ten children, seven of whom survived. Three of her sons became kings of France, and through her children, Catherine wielded enormous power in the land. In fact, she was a major force in French politics, especially during the thirty years of the Roman Catholic-Huguenot wars. Catherine was a Roman Catholic, but when trying to create a balance with religions, she sometimes agreed with the Huguenots. By doing this, she created a policy of peace between the Catholics and the Protestants.

           Catherine had a great interest in architecture, and she demonstrated this with her authority over the building of the new wing of the Louvre Museum, the construction of the Tuilleries Gardens, and the building of the Chateau Monceau. As a great patron of the arts, she helped the Renaissance flourish, and is sometimes called a ‘renaissance woman’.

Joan of Arc was born in 1412, in the little village of Domremy in France. Her father had often told her of the sad condition of France, how the country was largely in the possession of England, and how the French king did not dare to be crowned. This made Joan very sad, and she brooded over the matter so much that she began to have visions of angels, and heard strange voices, which said to her, ‘Joan, you can deliver the land from the English. Go to the relief of King Charles of France’.

Joan believed that she had a mission from God, and she was determined to try to save France. Though everyone tried to dissuade her, she did not change her mind. She went to the king, and asked him to allow her to lead his soldiers to victory against the English. The king agreed, and when she was just 18 years old, Joan led an army of about 5000 men against the English, who had surrounded the city of Orleans. Mounted on a fine war-horse, and clad in white armour from head to foot, she rode along past the cheering multitude. In one hand she carried an ancient sword, and in the other, a white banner embroidered with lilies.

Joan was able to enter Orleans, and she led her men to victory after victory against the English. Her fame spread everywhere, and the English as well as the French thought she had more than human power. At last, the English were driven far to the north of France. Then Charles, urged by Joan, went to Rheims, with twelve thousand soldiers, and there, in Joan’s presence, was crowned king.

Sadly, Joan was later betrayed and accused of being a tool of the devil. She was tried, and was burned at the take. Later, she was declared to be a saint by the Catholic Church, and to this day, she is considered to be the national heroine of France. 

                Eleanor of Aquitaine was fifteen years old in 1137 AD, and not yet married, when her father, the Duke of Aquitaine, died suddenly. Eleanor had no brothers, so she inherited her father’s duchy, which included most of Southern France. This inheritance made her one of the richest women in Europe.

                  Eleanor was well educated. She could read and write Latin, and was well versed in music and literature too. She married the King of France Louis VII, and moved to Paris, where she set a trend for luxury and sophistication in the medieval world. She was an ardent supporter of the Crusades and she created a sensation when she dressed like an Amazon, and galloped through the crowds on a white horse, urging people to join the Crusades too. She herself even went on a Crusade with Louis.

                          Eleanor later divorced Louis, and married Henry who became the King of England. She lived into her eighties, surviving her son Richard, and saw her son John become King of England. Her last years were spent, as the abbess of a convent in Aquitaine, where she died at the age of 82.

 

          Hildegard of Bingen was a medieval mystic or prophet and visionary. As a young girl, she had visions connected with an illness, and was sent to a monastery where she was put under the care of a noblewoman and resident there, named Jutta. It was Jutta who taught Hildegard to read and write. In time, Hildegard learned Latin, read the scriptures, and had access to many other books of religious and philosophical nature. She took the veil and made her nun’s vows at the age of 15. A convent was built next to the monastery, and Hildegard became the abbess. She then founded a convent at Bingen.

          Hildegard produced major works of theology and visionary writings - the Scivias. She was also believed to have been the illustrator of the Scivias, and therefore, one of the few identifiable women artists of the Middle Ages. She was famous for writing sacred music and writing about natural history and medicine. She was so well respected that she was consulted by, and advised bishops, popes, and kings. These accomplishments gave Hildegard of Bergen the name of the ‘Sibyl of the Rhine’.

Boudicca, a woman of unusual courage, was the queen of the Iceni people of Eastern England. She led a major uprising against occupying Roman forces. Boudicca was married to Prasutagus, ruler of the Iceni people of East Anglia. When the Romans conquered Southern England in AD 43, they allowed Prasutagus to continue to rule. However, when Prasutagus died, the Romans decided to rule the Iceni directly. Boudicca herself was stripped and beaten by the Romans, and she rose in fury to lead an uprising against them.

Tall, red haired, and ferocious, Boudicca struck terror into the hearts of the Romans as she led her equally fearsome looking warriors against Roman strong holds. She went from victory to victory, and showed no mercy to her enemies. Even when she was defeated, she remained defiant and untamed. Her final defeat came in 61 AD, when she survived the battle, but killed herself by taking poison. Boudicca remains alive forever as a symbol of independence and determination.

 

              Who has not heard of Cleopatra, the beautiful ruler of Ancient Egypt? She is one of the greatest political and romantic figures in history. She called herself the daughter of the Egyptian Sun God Ra, and became the ruler of Egypt along with her younger brother in 51 BC, at a time when Egypt was facing great hardship. The Romans were seizing more and more Egyptian territories, and there was wide-spread famine throughout the land. Cleopatra herself had many enemies who succeeded in driving her out of the country. They then seized power in the name of her younger brother, who was also the ruler.

               However, Cleopatra was not to be dismissed so lightly. She sought the help of Rome’s greatest general, Julius Caesar, and he helped her to get back her throne. After Caesar’s death, one of his loyal generals, Mark Antony became her husband. Mark Antony divorced his Roman wife to marry Cleopatra, and this greatly angered the Romans. Julius Caesar’s nephew, Octavius Caesar, declared war on Egypt, and defeated Mark Antony, who committed suicide.

             Cleopatra too chose to die, rather than be taken a prisoner of Rome. She had a basket of figs, in which a snake was concealed, smuggled into her room. She died of snakebite, but became immortal for the beauty, charm, and charisma that had captured the hearts of two of the most powerful men in the world at that time.

 

Hypatia was the daughter of a teacher of mathematics, who lived in Alexandria in Ancient Egypt. She studied under her father, and other great scholars of the time, including Plutarch. Hypatia herself grew up to become a renowned scholar and teacher, who wrote on mathematics, astronomy, and philosophy.

Hypatia has many achievements to her credit. She wrote about the movements of the planets, and the numbers theory. She also invented the plane astrolabe, the graduated brass hydrometer and the hydroscope, along with one of her students and colleagues. Besides being a teacher and inventor, Hypatia was a powerful political force in the city.

Hypatia was bold and fearless. She scorned women’s clothing, and dressed like a scholar. She moved about freely like men did, and drove her own chariot. She had many enemies who distrusted her teachings. These enemies finally led an attack against her, and Hypatia was killed by a violent mob. Yet her memory lives on, and though her works were destroyed, we know of her writings through the works of other great writers.

 

            Aspasia will go down in history as one of the first truly liberated women, not just in Ancient Greece, but in the world. She was born into a wealthy family around 400 BC, in the lonian city of Miletus, which is a part of modern Turkey. As a child, Aspasia received an excellent education, unlike most girls of that era.

            Aspasia’s family moved to Athens and settled there. Since she was not Athenian by birth, Aspasia was free of the legal restraints that bound other Athenian women. She became the wife of a famous Athenian named Pericles, and had a son who was also called Pericles.

            Aspasia gained fame, as the leader of a highly independent group of women, who were beautiful, educated, accomplished entertainers. They even paid taxes like men did! Aspasia herself influenced not only her husband and her son, but also the course of Athenian politics. In fact, it is believed that she was responsible for a couple of wars like the Athenian attack on Samos, and the Archimedean War. So great was her power and influence that she has found mentioned in the works of the great writers of the time like Plato, Aristophanes, and Xenophon.