My Science School

Joseph Stalin is a name etched in world history. He was the absolute ruler of the Soviet Union and later the Communist bloc in Eastern Europe. Stalin took control of the Soviet Union in 1922 after the Russian Civil War. By 1927, he had absolute power over the USSR and was its unquestioned ruler. His capabilities and understanding of the workings of the Communist Party led to his rise in power.

After Lenin’s death, Stalin became the de-facto successor to the government under the rules of the Party. Stalin ruled as a dictator, wiping out all the opposing voices. He played a major role in transforming the Soviet Union into a global superpower.

Stalin ruled by terror. He formed a secret police and encouraged people to spy on each other. Whoever refused to co-operate with Stalin’s plans were either shot or exiled. He even controlled the media and photography.

The Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of communism. Communism grew as an influential political belief and spread around the world. The Soviet Union rose as a world power after the Russian Revolution. It became so powerful that it stood at par with the United States during the Cold War.

The Russian Revolution inspired the revolutionaries in many other countries. Mao Zedong turned China into a communist nation, following the example set by the Soviets. China, Cuba, Vietnam, Nicaragua and a number of other countries are direct heirs of the Russian Revolution.

The 1917 Russian Revolution was a powerful tool in spreading socialist ideas as well. Socialism was a popular concept by the time the Second World War divided the world. However, by the end of the 20th century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country, declined considerably.

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The Young Turk Revolution of July 1908 reversed the suspension of the Ottoman parliament by Sultan Abdul Hamid II. It marked the return to Constitutional government and promoted the vision of a democratic multi-national state.

The Young Turk movement was inspired by the spirit of nationalism that was sweeping through Europe. It brought together various intellectuals, dissidents-most of who were exiled- and officers in the army to raise voices against the unjust system. The Bulgarians, Arabs, Jews, Armenians and Greeks within the Ottoman Empire also supported the movement.

In 1906, various Young Turk organizations combined to form the Committee on Union and Progress (CUP). The Committee then went on to govern the Empire for a period of ten years from 1908 to 1918.

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In 1876, Abdul Hamid II established a constitutional monarchy. This was thirty years before the Young Turk Revolution and this period is known as the First Constitutional Era. However, the constitutional monarchy lasted only for two years; Abdul Hamid II suspended the new system of governance and restored autocratic powers to himself.

In June 1908, The Young Turks revolted against the Sultan. They wanted to re-establish the constitution. On 24 July, Abdul Hamid II gave in and promised to restore the 1876 constitution, thus starting the Ottoman Empire’s Second Constitutional Era.

The Young Turk Revolution was met with a counterrevolution in 1909; it briefly restored the autocratic rule of Abdul Hamid II. The Turkish Parliament however overthrew Abdul Hamid II in 1909.

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The October Revolution changed the political climate of Russia. After the Revolution, the Congress of Soviets adopted a constitution according to which, the supreme authority was vested in the Congress itself. All banks were nationalized and all factories placed under the control of the local Soviets. The period that followed the October Revolution also brought an end to the war with Germany.

The new government then held democratic elections. The elections were held only after ensuring that power was safe in their hands, but the result was not much to their liking. The Bolsheviks were shocked to know that they received one of the lowest numbers of votes. They refused to accept the election results. The new parliament was physically attacked and dispersed; it was never to be heard of again.

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On 3 March, 1918, Russia signed a treaty with the Central Powers ending its participation in the First World War in the city of Brest-Litovsk.

The Treaty recognized the independence of Ukraine Georgia and Finland. Russia gave up Poland and the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to Germany and Austria-Hungary. The Treaty also surrendered Kars, Ardahan and Batum to Turkey.

The Treaty was a huge loss for Russia; it lost one third of its population, a majority of its coal, oil and iron stores, and much of its Industry. This was followed by the dismantling of the democratically elected parliament.

The Bolsheviks were met with widespread opposition after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The political conditions in Russia led to a civil war that started in 1918. The war lasted for three years. After the civil war, the Bolsheviks started what came to be known as the Red Terror. Cheka, the secret police hunted down opponents of the state.

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The Bolsheviks grew due to their relationship with the Petrograd Soviets. The Petrograd Soviets represented the workers of Russia.

The Bolsheviks were known for their effective use of propaganda and ideology that targeted the people of Russia. This aided their growth. Their leader Lenin promised an immediate end to the war. He demanded that all banks and businesses be taken over by the workers.

The weaknesses of the Provisional Government and the non-Bolshevik parties added to the success of the Bolsheviks. By October 1917, the Bolsheviks took their chance and overthrew the Russian Provisional Government. This happened under the leadership of Lenin during the period known as the October Revolution.

The armed forces of the Bolsheviks took over the Winter Palace on 6 November, 1917 (October 25 in the Julian calendar, which was used in Russia until 1918). The Winter Palace then served as the seat of the Provisional Government located in Petrograd.

The socialists in Petrograd organized elections among workers and soldiers. After this they formed a council known as the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies. The council then began to put pressure on the bourgeois Provisional Government.

Though the Petrograd Soviet initially permitted the Provisional Government to rule, they wanted to hold more power and control various militias. This led to a power struggle between the two and to much confusion in governance.

This period of competition for authority ended in late October 1917. During that time, the Bolsheviks routed the ministers of the Provisional Government in what is known as the October Revolution.

During the Russian Revolution, the workers and soldiers of Petrograd staged armed demonstrations against the Provisional Government. They protested using the Bolshevik slogans. They also adopted resolutions against the government.

On 3rd July, 1917, the protestors marched through Petrograd to the Tauride Palace demanding the Soviet of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies to assume formal power.

Though the Bolsheviks attempted to prevent the demonstrators in the beginning, they had no choice left than giving in. The events following the demonstrations resulted in the temporary decline of Bolshevik influence and the formation of a new Provisional Government. The new set-up was headed by Alexander Kerensky.

This period in Russian history is known as the July Days. However, lack of proper organization and leadership eventually led to the failure of this new administration.

Things were not great for Russians in August, 1917. For a brief period, the Provisional Government appeared to be under threat from a counter - revolution led by its own army. What followed was a period of struggle between the Prime Minister Alexander Kerensky and the commander-in-chief of the Russian Army, Lavr Kornilov. This period is often referred to as the Kornilov affair.

General Kornilov was a tsarist military officer, known for his loyalty and competence who reluctantly accepted the February Revolution and barely tolerated the Provisional Government.

Disgusted by the activity of the Petrograd Soviet and the influence of socialists, he sought to impose martial law in the Russian capital. In August, Kornilov began plotting a military occupation of Petrograd. He was sacked by Kerensky, who called on the Soviets and Red Guards to protect the capital. The advance on Petrograd did not proceed but the Kornilov affair humiliated the Provisional Government and facilitated a revival in Bolshevik fortunes, leading to the ultimate downfall of the Kerensky government.

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Vladimir Lenin is one of Russia’s best-known revolutionaries. He was a great politician and a statesman.

Lenin was the architect and the first head of the Soviet state. He managed to turn the Bolsheviks into the organization that became capable of seizing power in October 1917. It was Lenin who led the Bolsheviks to victory in the civil war against the many political opponents who were supported by foreign powers.

Expelled from the University for his Radical Ideas, Lenin completed his law degree as an external student and moved to Petrograd. Soon, he became an active revolutionary. Like many of his contemporaries, he was arrested. Lenin later emerged as a prominent figure in the international revolutionary movement and became the leader of the Bolshevik faction.

By 1917, most of the Russians were tired of the rule of the tsar and the crisis caused by the war. They lost faith in him and needed a breath of fresh air.

On 22 February, 1917, metal workers in Petrograd went on strike. The next day, female protesters who were marching against food rationing joined them. The protesters grew in number each day as more and more people took part. The protesters demanded the replacement of the tsar and an end to the war. Eventually nearly all industry in Petrograd was shut down.

The tsar did not have the support of the army either. Though he ordered the commander of the Petrograd garrison to suppress the riot using force, the troops in the city refused to do so. In fact, they too joined the protesters. Following the advice of his ministers, the tsar abdicated the throne on 2 March, 1917. His brother refused to succeed to the throne, marking the end of the tsarist regime.

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The Russian Provisional Government was formed by the Duma after the collapse of the tsarist regime. It was internationally recognized as the government of Russia from February to October of 1917.

Initially, the Russian Provisional Government was composed of liberal ministers alone. The only exception was Alexander Kerensky of the Socialist Revolutionary Party.

The Provisional Government was initially chaired by Prince Georgy Yevgenievich Lvov, a member of the Constitutional Democratic Party. Over its eight-month existence, it was reorganized twice, each time as a coalition of several political parties. However, it was not able to effectively address the major problems of the country and became very unpopular.

Gregory Rasputin was a Russian mystic who befriended Tsar Nicholas II and his family. He proclaimed himself as a holy man and was known as a monk. But he did not have any position in the Russian Orthodox Church.

Rasputin influenced the imperial history of Russia. Nicholas II gave him a position in the royal court because of his supposed healing powers. He soon became Tsarina Alexandra’s favourite. Rasputin was also known for his prophetic powers. When Russia entered World War I, Rasputin prophesied that the country would face a calamity. In 1915, Nicholas II took command of the Russian army, and Alexandra took responsibility for domestic policy.

Alexandra governed according to Rasputin’s whims; she dismissed ministers who were said to be suspicious of the ‘mad monk’. Though the government officials warned her of Rasputin’s undue influence, she did not pay any heed. Tired of the mad monk’s prophecies and ideas, a group of conspirators killed him and threw his body into the Neva River.

On 22nd January, 1905, Father Gapon, a Russian Orthodox priest, led a large group of workers to the tsar’s Winter Palace in Petrograd to present a petition regarding the plight of the workers. The petition was addressed to Tsar Nicholas II.

On the arrival of the group, the imperial forces opened fire, killing and wounding hundreds. This incident is known as Bloody Sunday in the history of Russia. Bloody Sunday is considered as the start of the 1905 Revolution.

The firing was met with violent reactions; strikes and riots broke throughout the country. The uprising urged the tsar to issue the October Manifesto. The manifesto granted Russia a form of constitution. At the core of this new arrangement was an elected central assembly, known as the Duma.

However, the concessions granted by the manifesto did not meet the radical opposition’s demands for an assembly or a republic.