My Science School

          Do you know when the first urban settlement appeared in the history? It was during the Indus Valley civilization. The civilization at Mohenjodaro and Harappa grew up in the valley of the river Indus and this is why it is referred as the Indus valley civilization.

          It is considered to be one of the largest of the ancient civilizations of an urban nature. The town planning in the Indus valley civilization was very systematic. The city was the heart of Indus valley civilization.

          The Indus Valley Civilization began around 2500 BC, and ended up by 1900 BC. It mainly included the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is north-east Afghanistan to Pakistan, and northwest India. At its peak, the Indus Valley Civilization may have had a population of over five million. 

          Nebuchadnezzar II was a ruler of Babylonia. He expanded his empire while building the city of Babylon into a wonder of the ancient world.

           The city of Babylon was a wonder to the ancient world. One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World ‘The Hanging Garden’, survived here. This garden was built by king

          Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled Babylonia. Nebuchadnezzar was the mighty king of the Babylonian empire between 605 and 562 BC. The hanging garden was believed to have been built for Nebuchadnezzar’s wife, as she missed the green hills and villages of her homeland. The garden was remarkable with its ascending series of tiered gardens that contained a wide variety of trees, shrubs, and vines.

           Nebuchadnezzar’s building projects also included surrounding his capital city with a 16 kilometres long double wall, with an elaborate entry called the Ishtar Gate. He also built a port on the Persian Gulf. Nebuchadnezzar also built a grand palace that came to be known as “the Marvel of the Mankind”.

 

          Hammurabi, the sixth king of the first dynasty of Babylonia, instituted one of the earliest known collections of laws.

          There were different sets of law in Ancient Babylon concerning religion, agriculture, administration and business. Hammurabi codified all these laws in simple form which became famous as the Code of Hammurabi.

          The Code of Hammurabi had four parts. They include laws about money, property, the family, and the rights of slaves. According to the law, a criminal had to be punished in a way that suited the crime. The famous phrase “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth” originates from Hammurabi’s code. For instance, a murderer was awarded the death penalty. If a thief was caught stealing he had to return triple price of the same.

          Hammurabi’s laws were carved into a stele of black basalt rock. The code begins and ends with addresses to the gods. He stated specifically that the strong should not oppress the weak, and that widows or orphans should get justice.

          The Code of Hammurabi is important even today, for it reveals the way human rights were beginning to emerge in Babylonia, as Hammurabi sought to protect all classes of Babylonian society. 

               Hammurabi was the greatest king of the First Babylonian Dynasty, reigning from 1792 BC to 1750 BC. He extended Babylon’s control throughout Mesopotamia through military campaigns. From all the remarkable achievements of Hammurabi, none is more important than the Code of Law.

               Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia, Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes throughout the Middle East under Hammurabi.

                Hammurabi used his power to undertake a series of public works, including heightening the city walls for defensive purposes, and expanding the temples.

               Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated to the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as 55 of his own letters. Hammurabi died in around 1750 BC. His son Samsu-iluna succeeded him.

 

          Early Man believed that heaven held some kind of power over earthly existence. Man gazed towards the heaven, searching to put some meaning and order to the universe around him. This belief was found in the ancient Babylonian records.

          Babylonians are famous for their contribution to mathematics and astronomy. They created a numerical system based on the number 60, which helped us to derive the 360 degree system.

          The Greek day of 12 double hours, the zodiac and its signs, and the calendar, are all credited to Babylonians.

          Not only this, the Babylonians had a significant knowledge of medicine as well. They knew the anatomy of human and animals and even performed surgeries in delicate areas like the eyes. The world of mathematics and astronomy owes much to the Babylonians. 

            As we know Mesopotamia was blessed with many empires, which contributed to the socio-political changes in the region.

            Sumer and Akkad, which developed very rich cultures, were later adopted by Amorite, a tribe that had conquered all of Mesopotamia in 21st century BC.

            Soon under the rule of the Amorites, Babylon became the political and commercial centre of the Tigris-Euphrates area. They created a vast empire. Babylonia was called Mat Akkadi ‘the country of Akkad’ in the Akkadian language.

            Efficient kings made the empire even more flourishing. It was during the reign of Hammurabi that Babylon expanded greatly, and became the major power in the region. Hammurabi forged coalitions between the separate city states, promoted science and scholarship, and created his famous code of law. 

            Tiglath-Pileser III was an Assyrian King in the eighth century BC. His real name was Pulu, and he was the governor of the city of Kalhu. Through a coup he became the king. He assumed the name Tiglath-Pileser to link him to the great rulers of the past like Tiglath-Pileser I. As king, he made drastic changes to the government, reducing the power of governors. He restructured the military, and it became Assyria’s first professional army. He was a proficient administrator, and is regarded as one of the greatest leaders in history.

            He is one of the most successful military commanders in world, conquering most of the world known to the Assyrians at that time. He defeated several kingdoms including Urartu, and Media. Babylonia came under his control in 729 BC, and he crowned himself as ‘King Pulu of Babylon’. 

          In ancient civilization, as in modern civilizations, war have always been won by a strong military force and lost by the weak one. A strong military force is always important to secure a nation from external invasion. History has been witness to this phenomenon.

          Assyrian military power, considered the first real military power in history, has been highly acclaimed. The Assyrians acquired a large empire and possessed a highly advanced military organization and weaponry.

          In a warrior society where fighting was a part of life, two things that made Assyrians great were their deadly chariots, and their fearsome iron weapons.

          Assyrian rulers were strong. They went on military expeditions along the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. This practice was continued for hundreds of years.

         Assyrian kings built highways, and established courts to settle disputes among subjects. They even promoted arts and education and had libraries in their palaces. But they were most famous for their fearsome army.

         But, as Assyria grew in size, the army failed to defend the whole empire at once. The combined forces of Babylonia and Media defeated them, and the great Assyrian Empire crumbled soon. 

          The first civilization is thought to have arisen in Mesopotamia. But sadly, it was also the first civilization to be conquered. The conquerors were the Akkadians, and the conqueror was Sargon. He ruled the Akkadian Empire between 2340 BC and 2284 BC.

          Sargon is remembered, for he created the world’s first empire and standing army. He made Akkadian the official language. Sargon promoted trade, improved water management, and standardized weights and measures.

         He was a self-made man of humble origins. The baby Sargon was found floating in a reed basket on the river Euphrates, and was later rescued by a gardener Akki. Akki adopted the boy, and raised him as his own son.

          Sargon introduced the idea that a king should be succeeded by his son. The kings, who ruled Mesopotamia later, saw themselves as the heirs of Sargon’s Empire. 

        Much of what we know about the history of Mesopotamia comes from the thousand tablets found in Assyrian cities.

        Assyria was initially a Sumerian-dominated region. Later, they became subject to the dynasty of the city state of Akkad during the Akkadian Empire.

        Assyrian rulers were subject to Sargon and his successors, and the city of Assur became a regional administrative centre of the Empire.

       Assyria was already firmly involved in trade in Asia Minor by this time; the earliest known reference to their trade post in Hatti was found on later cuneiform tablets describing the early period of the Akkadian Empire.

       After the decline of the Akkadian Empire, the rulers of Assyria once again became fully independent.

       Ushpia appears to have been the first fully urbanized independent king of Assyria. The oldest remains of the city Assur were discovered in the foundation of the Ishtar Gate. 

          History tells us many stories - some based on fantasy, and some based on truth. Ancient Mesopotamia too had its own share of stories. One of which considered as the earliest surviving great work of literature is the Epic of Gilgamesh. It is an epic poem from Mesopotamia. It was written on 12 clay tablets in the cuneiform writing style. It is about the adventures of the historical king of Uruk, Gilgamesh, who seemed to have lived in Mesopotamia about 2700 BC. The epic begins with Gilgamesh ruling the city of Uruk. Gilgamesh learns about a wild man who lives out in the hills near the city. The wild man was Enkidu. Gilgamesh gets Enkidu to come to the city, and the two become friends. They have many adventures together. When Enkidu dies, Gilgamesh mourns his friend’s death.

          He starts seeking the secret of eternal life and later learns that he can become immortal if he stays awake for a week, watching a plant. But he fails and falls asleep. Realizing the fact that everybody has to die some day, he returns to Uruk as a much wiser man than before. 

          Uruk, Ur, and Lagash were the major cities in Ancient Mesopotamia. Among them, Uruk was the most important one. It was founded by King Enmerkar sometime around 4500 BC. It was probably the largest city in the world at that time. The city was famous for its large monuments including temples and palaces. Uruk is famous for its great king Gilgamesh. It was the centre of trade and administration.

          Ur was another important Sumerian city state around 3800 BC. Ur possessed great wealth and the people there enjoyed life more than the other Mesopotamian cities. The city of Ur reached the heights of its glory under King Ur-Nammu in around 2100 BC. The city was abandoned after 500 BC.

         Another Sumerian city, Lagash was founded in 5200 BC. It was a culturally vibrant city till 3500 BC. Lagash was endowed with many temples. The most famous monument in Lagash was the Stele of the Vultures, which was erected to celebrate the victory of King Eannatum over the neighbouring state of Umma. The city was once the seat of Sumerian art. 

       The Sumerians were the first people to form a civilization, and they were considered as one of the advanced civilizations. Their culture influenced future civilizations. Social classes were formed, as people started doing different jobs, which in turn allowed them to live in different ways.

          In Sumer, the city became the centre of trade, religion, and social life. The city layout described the social classes developing.

           The Sumerian city was centre around a massive temple complex called a Ziggurat, where the god of the city was worshipped. The Sumerians believed that gods controlled nature and life. They offered food and wine to keep the gods happy.

           Palaces of the King’s family surrounded the temple, which was again, surrounded by houses and shops for government workers, and craftsmen. Smaller houses were found outside the city, but these still lay within the large defensive walls that surrounded the city. Narrow alleys and small streets divided the houses. 

The Greek word ‘Mesopotamia’ means ‘the land between two rivers’. The fertile land between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris was suitable for agriculture, which made it possible for Man to stay in the same place for a longer period.

The first urban civilization to have ever emerged on the planet Earth is the Sumerian civilization, of Mesopotamia in 3500 BC. Hence, Mesopotamia is called one of the cradles of civilization.

Agriculture first drew people to the banks of the rivers in Mesopotamia. Soon, they learned to build irrigation canals. As more people began to settle here, they began to build many more villages and towns along the river.

The most important contribution of the Sumerians to mankind was writing. As time went on it became necessary to keep records. This led to the development of writing. The Sumerians used clay tablets to record their accounts.

The Sumerians had well developed systems for counting. They also had a calendar, and a legal system. The Sumerians are often credited with the invention of wheel. They used wheels for carts, and also for making pots. There was a well developed system for the governance of cities.

Today, the region of Mesopotamia is located mainly in Iraq and in parts of Iran, Syria and Turkey. 

          In the course of human evolution, at a certain point in time, the idea of living in a group with mutual under-standing and sharing became very useful and practical.

          From small isolated groups, communities were formed, and then societies, which in due course, became a civilization. But a civilization is much more than just a town; it is an advanced stage of organization.

          Civilization roughly means a highly developed social structure enriched by cultural, economic, and creative factors. It can include many things, like how different sections form in the society, how we interact with each other, how we create artistic works, how we dress, or how we govern ourselves.

          Most early civilizations flourished on riverbanks. This was because the river made the land fertile, and ensured the supply of water for agriculture.