My Science School

               The Celts were proud and honourable people, who colonized the whole of Central Europe including Britain, and spoke a different language. The study of the Celts is important because, they are hailed as the fathers of Europe, and their culture spread from Galicia in Spain, to Turkey. Many place names in Europe are derived from the Celtic inhabitants, and many of the roads once attributed to the Romans are now recognized as having been created by the Celts.

               The Celtic tribes lived in scattered villages. Most Celts lived in farming communities surrounded by a bank with wooden fencing and a ditch to keep out intruders and wild animals. The Celts lived in round houses with thatched roofs of straw or heather. Clothes were made from wool, and dyed with natural vegetable dyes. The Celts also loved to wear jewellery made from bronze, gold, tin, silver, coral and enamel. They ate whatever food they could grow or hunt.

               The Celts were great warriors. Many Celts went into battle unprotected by helmets or armour. They often fought naked - and it’s believed that women fought as well. They believed in many gods and goddesses, and priests called druids.

               In fact, there are still areas where the Celtic languages remain widely spoken and these include parts of the British Isles and Brittany in France.

 

                 Constantine was the first Christian Roman emperor. It is said that the night before a battle, he had a dream in which a cross appeared in the sky, and a voice proclaimed ‘Under this sign you will win’. So, he converted to Christianity and his rule saw many changes in the Roman Empire.

                 Constantine lived in the Eastern Empire, and chose Byzantium as his capital, which he renamed Constantinople. Byzantium was located in a perfect position to trade with the east and the west. Rather than send traded goods onto to Rome, Constantine kept most of the goods in his own half of the empire. Moreover, he built Constantinople with the money that he got from Rome. As a result, the western side of the empire became less and less important to the Eastern Roman Empire with its capital in Constantinople. Constantine’s conversion to Christianity also increased the Christian influence among the Romans. 

               Rome is built on seven hills. Ancient Rome was a huge, crowded city, with beautiful temples and public buildings. The rich had gracious homes, each with an entrance atrium, which was the centre of family life. For those who were not quite as rich, there were apartment buildings, while shabby tenements were for the poor.

               The Romans enjoyed going to the public baths, not just to bathe but for socializing. A Roman’s day might start off with a light breakfast. In the early afternoon, the Roman might take a quick trip to the baths. At around 3pm, they would have dinner which was as much of a social event. Some were carried in covered litters, with curtained couches carried on poles by slaves. Even for the poor, life in the city was lively. There was always something going on, like the many religious festivals with entertainment paid for by the rich, and chariot racing. These were free spectacles that all the people could enjoy. 

 

 

               During the era of the late Republic, Rome suffered through a reign of terror under the dictator Sulla. When he died, damage had been done to the republican system of government. Violence and uncertainty allowed a new political alliance to arise- that of the first triumvirate. Triumvirate means ‘three men’ and refers to a group of three men who hold political power, regardless of whether or not the trio has been elected. 

 

 

       

 

               The first triumvirate consisted of Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Marcus Licinius Crassus. They divided up the Roman provinces. Crassus, the capable financier, received Syria. Pompey, the renowned general, got Spain. Caesar, who would soon show he to be a skilled politician, took over Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and II - lyricum. The triumvirate fell apart in 53 BC, when a Parthian army attacked Rome and killed Crassus. Meanwhile, Caesar developed the Roman Empire. In a struggle for power with the Senate, Caesar emerged the winner.

               After Caesar’s death, the second triumvirate was established in 43 BC. It consisted of Octavian, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, and Mark Antony. The second triumvirate ended when Antony became involved with Cleopatra-Egypt’s pharaoh- and decided to fight Rome. Octavian played a part in defeating Antony’s forces. Once Antony was out of the way, and Lepidus was forced to retire, Octavian was free to become Augustus Caesar.  

               For the first 200 years after it was founded, Rome was a kingdom, ruled by a succession of seven kings. The seventh king, Tarquinius was overthrown in 509 BC, and the Roman Republic was established.

                Under the Republic, two elected consuls led the government. The consul’s most important power was that they controlled the army. They were members of the Senate, which was composed of leaders from the noble families of Rome. Members of the Senate were chosen by the consuls. Once chosen, they served for life.

               There was also an Assembly composed of the common citizens of Rome. It had limited powers. It could vote for, or suggest laws, but the Senate could block their decisions. The Assembly could vote to declare war, but the Senate could override them. However, the Assembly had one power that was very impressive - it was the Assembly who voted each year on which two members of the Senate would serve as consuls. The Roman Republic followed a policy of expansion, and established many provinces. Each province was provided with manpower, taxes, food and other resources. 

 

             The founding of Rome goes back to the very early days of civilization. According to legend, Rome was founded by the twins, Romulus and Remus, who were the sons of the War God, Mars. An evil uncle took them as babies from their mother, and threw them into the River Tiber to drown. The boys were found by a she-wolf who fed and nurtured them. Then, a shepherd and his wife adopted the boys. Years later, Mars told his twin sons to build a city on the spot where they had been found. The city was Rome.

             Romulus and Remus both wanted to be the only king. They quarrelled, and in a fit of rage, Romulus picked up a rock, killed his brother, and made himself the sole ruler. This legend is one of the most famous in the history of the world. The city of Rome was later to become the heart of the Roman Empire. 

               The Etruscans lived in what is modern Tuscany in the area bounded by the Tiber and Arno rivers, the Apennines and the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Etruscan economy was based on agriculture, trade, and mineral resources. The Etruscans learnt a lot from the Greeks and the Phoenicians- things that the Latins, living around Rome didn’t know how to do yet.

               The Etruscans built cities with stone walls. Each autonomous city was originally ruled by a powerful, wealthy king and had a sacred boundary. Etruscan homes were mud-brick, with timber on stone foundations. They built big stone temples and huge statues. They dug canals and ditches to bring water to their fields. They had organized governments with kings. Soon, some of the other people in Italy began to copy the Etruscan ways, and the Etruscans heavily influenced early Rome.

 

               Ancient Greece was also known as ‘Hellas’ and ‘Hellenism’ was the spreading of the Greek way of life to the rest of the world. The spread of Hellenism embraced nearly all forms of life, like politics, art, philosophy, religion, and science.

               The Hellenistic Age is the period between the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander, and the establishment of Roman supremacy. Alexander’s generals divided the huge empire into three main Macedonian kingdoms- Egypt under the Ptylomies, Syria, ruled by the Seleucids, and Macedonia under the Antigonid dynasty. The rulers used their wealth to attract poets, scholars, and artists. The religion of the Hellenistic Age combined Greek gods with Eastern deities. This was a process known as syncretism.

               Impressive scientific innovations were made in Alexandria, where the Greek Eratosthenes computed the circumference of the Earth, Archimedes calculated pi, and Euclid compiled his geometry text.

               In literature, new comedy evolved, and the personal biography became popular. The centre of medical research and development was Alexandria. Researchers used dissections to show the distinction between arteries and nerves. They learned to use the pulse for diagnosis, and saw the heart as a pump with valves. They were even able to control bleeding with tourniquets and surgically remove hernias, bladder stones, and haemorrhoids! 

               Alexander died without any sons old enough to rule, and so his kingdom was split up among his generals. These generals, known as the Diadochi, squabbled amongst themselves over who was the rightful heir to the throne. They engaged in a series of conflicts known as the Wars of the Diadochi. 

               Lysimachus was one of the generals, who conquered Asia Minor, Thrace and later Macedonia, and accumulated vast riches. However, he was later defeated by Seleucus. Seleucus was a young soldier who had risen through the ranks of Alexander’s army. He was the Governor of Babylon, but was forced to flee. He later became an admiral in the navy of Ptolemy I.

               Antigonous was the first of the Diadochi to openly declare him a king. His ambition was to reunite the empire of Alexander by defeating all the other Diadochi rulers. This caused the remaining Diadochi to join together against him. They finally defeated Antigonous.

               In this power struggle, none of the Diadochi, or their successors was ever able to unite Alexander’s Empire. However, they prudently promoted the intermingling of Greeks with the local peoples, leading to a fusion of East with West. This period is known as the Hellenistic Age. 

               Alexander the Great is one of the most famous men in history. He was a prince of Macedonia. He was taught by Aristotle, and he respected the Greeks greatly.

               At the age of 16, brave Alexander was made a captain in the Macedonian armies. When he became king, Alexander was determined to conquer both Greece and Persia, and combine them into an empire that would equal any other empire, anywhere in the world. For the next 13 years, Alexander marched his troops from battle to battle, conquering more and more territory. Alexander never lost a battle. Before his death, he had built over 70 cities, and had conquered the entire known world in the Mediterranean region.

               Alexander died on June 323 BCE, about a month before his 33rd birthday. Everywhere he went, he had introduced Greek literature, myth, dance, language, money, medicine, art, and theatre... and this was his greatest contribution in keeping the Greek culture alive. 

            To the north of Greece was a country called Macedon. Its ruler, King Philip II was a hostage of the Greeks at Thebes, between 368 and 365 BC. But while in captivity there, he observed the military techniques of the Greeks. After returning to Macedonia, he waited until the Greeks had become weak after the Peloponnesian war. While the Greek cities quarrelled among themselves, he seized them. Finally he won a brilliant victory over the Greeks with the help of an innovative new weapon -18 foot long pikes.

            Apart from reforming the military, Philip had several political inventions that helped turn Macedonia into a power. His primary method of creating alliances and strengthening loyalties was through marriages, and it is said that he was prouder of his diplomatic manoeuvers than of his military victories. So you see, Philip of Macedonia was not just a brilliant military strategist, but also a tough and cunning politician, and a gifted tactician as well.

 

               The Peloponnesian War was a devastating military conflict between Athens, and a group of other city states called the Peloponnesian League, led by Sparta. In the first year of the war, Athens had the advantage because they had a lot of money and a good navy. So, they were safe inside their walls, and the Spartans could not break through.

               But in the summer of 430 BC, the Athenians began to die from a terrible plague. In the third year of the war, more than half the people in the city of Athens died from illness. People from the surrounding countryside had fled inside the city gates, fleeing Spartan attacks. The Spartans had the town surrounded. The Athenians could not get to their crops. Finally, in April, in the year 404 BC, Athens surrendered.

               The Spartans could not enjoy their victory for long. In 371 BC, they were defeated by the Thebans. Classical Greece was on the decline, and finally, came under the gifted Macedonian ruler, Philip II. 

               The Greeks wrote a great deal, and a surprising amount of what they wrote is still available to us today. Their literature consisted of poems, epics and plays as well as historical and philosophical writings. The great poets of early Greece include Hesiod, Sappho and Archilocus. Plays were divided into comedies and tragedies, and some of the great playwrights were Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, and Menander.

               Ancient Greek philosophy is dominated by three very famous men- Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. All three of these lived in Athens for most of their lives, and they knew each other. Socrates came first, and Plato was his student. Aristotle, who was younger, came to study at Plato’s school, and ended up starting his own school as well.

              Ancient Greek architecture reached its heights in the many magnificent temples, monuments, theatres and public places. The ancient Greeks invented three types of columns that were used all over ancient Greece. The columns were placed to support a building, but also adjusted in size and angle. The Greek architectural style may be found not only in Greece, but throughout the Mediterranean.

 

               Ancient Greece was split into many different city states. The two most important city states were Athens and Sparta.

               Athens was the largest, and a very rich city in Greece. People came to the city from all over Greece, and from other countries, to study and to trade. The city’s most famous building was the temple called the Parthenon. Inside the Parthenon stood a statue of the city’s protector-goddess, Athena. Athens was the leading power of the times, and has been called the cradle of democracy. Do you know why? It is because; the people of Athens were the first to experiment with a democratic form of government.

               Sparta was a soldier state with two kings. One king might stay at home, while the other was away fighting battles. The Spartans spent so much time training for battle that they would have starved without their slaves. These slaves were called helots, and they worked on the Spartans’ farms. The Spartans led a highly disciplined and austere life, and became the leading military power of that time.

            The island of Crete is located in the centre of the eastern Mediterranean at the crossroads of Africa, Asia, and Europe. The inhabitants of ancient Crete were known as Minoans after their fabled ruler, King Minos. They developed a civilization that was one of the first in Europe. This civilization flourished between the 17th and 13th century BC, and boasted of huge palace cities. The Minoans were a peaceful people, who engaged in trading and farming. They exerted considerable influence on their Greek neighbours until about 1450 BC.

            As the Minoan civilization disappeared, due to natural disasters or losses in war, a new tribe, the  Mycenaeans, came to power on the Greek mainland. They believed themselves to be great warriors. They built their palaces on hilltops. The Mycenaeans were influenced by the Minoans, and their civilization flourished until around 1200 BC., when they were invaded by the Dorians.