My Science School

               The Mongols were a group of nomads, who came from North Central Asia. Their name comes from their homeland, Mongolia. In Mongolia, they lived in tents, which allowed them to migrate from place to place in search of the best hunting grounds, and the most fertile soil.

               The Mongols were traders and herdsmen. They perfected the methods of warfare that enabled them to conquer more and more territories. Their army was arranged by clans, and operated in flexible units that allowed the Mongols to chase their enemies for days before wiping them out completely.

               By the late AD 1200’s, the Mongols had conquered more territory than any other nation in history. Their Empire stretched almost from sea to sea on Asia. Because almost all of Asia was being ruled by a single government, there was great peace in the land. However, the Mongol Empire was short lived. Local leaders became more powerful and by 1300, the empire had divided into smaller independent states.

 

            The Khazar people were an unusual phenomenon for medieval times. Surrounded by savage and nomadic tribes, they had a structured government, vast and prosperous trading, and a permanent army. At a time, when great fanaticism and deep ignorance ruled over Western Europe, the Khazar state was famous for its justice and tolerance.

            The Khazars were originally from Central Asia. From about 550 to 630, the Khazars were part of the Western Turkish Empire. When the Western Turkish Empire was broken up as a result of civil wars in the middle of the 7th century, the Khazars successfully asserted their independence. At its maximum extent, the independent country of Khazaria included the geographic regions of Southern Russia, Northern Caucasus, Eastern Ukraine, Crimea, Western Kazakhstan, and North-western Uzbekistan. Khazaria acted as a buffer state between the Islamic world and the Christian world.

              The history of Khazaria presents us with a fascinating example of how Jewish life flourished in the Middle Ages. At a time when Jews were persecuted throughout Christian Europe, the kingdom of Khazaria was a beacon of hope. Jews were able to flourish in Khazaria because of the tolerance of the Khazar rulers, who invited Byzantine and Persian Jewish refugees to settle in their country. Due to the influence of these refugees, the Khazars found the Jewish religion to be appealing, and adopted Judaism in large numbers. 

               The beginnings of the Hsiung-nu go back to times immemorial. It is reported that the Hsiung-nu had been known under a number of different names in Ancient China since antiquity. They were a people of vaguely Turkic stock, and were nomadic pastoralists living North of China. They often raided China of the Han dynasty, providing a major security threat for centuries. In fact, the Chinese began constructing the Great Wall because of the presence of the Hsiung-nu.

               Mao-Tun was a ruthless Hsiung-nu ruler who killed his own father, eliminated all his rivals, and perfected the art of horseback archery. Mao-Tun soon attracted a band of loyal followers whom he trained to obey his every command without question. The Hsiung-nu, under Mao-Tun, achieved their biggest successes at this time. However, during the subsequent wars that lasted for a couple of decades, a highly organized China showed itself to be superior. Slowly, the Hsiung-nu lost their position at the southern edge of the Gobi desert, and China secured control over the commercial routes to the west known as the famous ‘Silk Road’. Later on in history, they became the Huns, who transferred their attentions towards Europe, and unleashed the first migration of nations. 

               The Huns were an aggressive, dangerous, conquering tribe who probably came from Western China. The Chinese successfully defended themselves against the Huns in the 3rd century. The Huns then divided into two groups. The smaller group went towards India. But, the main group went north-west to Siberia. By 350 AD, the Huns were already crossing the steps toward Europe. In Europe, the Huns defeated many groups, and finally settled in the Hungarian area. They attacked the Eastern Roman Empire in 430 AD.

               The Huns were divided into the Hephthalites or White Huns, who invaded the Sassanid empire of Persia, and the Black Huns, who invaded Europe. The Hephthalites have fairer complexions than the Black Huns. Whether black or white, the Huns terrorized much of Asia and Europe from the 3rd through 5th centuries.

 

               The Avars were a Mongolian people. In the fourth century, they were one of many tribes to trouble the northern borders of the Chinese Empire. Little is known about the Avars in the period of their greatest power. Their base was situated somewhere near present-day Belgrade. By the end of the sixth century, their empire stretched from the River Volga to the Baltic Sea, and evidence suggests that they remained powerful well into the eighth century. They fought against the Byzantine Empire, and they reached as far as Constantinople, but could not take the city. Between 791 and 803, their kingdom was destroyed by the Franks and the Bulgarians, and the Avars merged with the Slavs.

               The Bulgars or proto Bulgarians, were a herding people who fought their way westward from Asia, raiding for plunder in Constantinople’s empire in the Balkans during the rule of Justinian I, and then retreating. During the rule of the Byzantine emperor Constantine V, the Arab danger had abated, and Constantine felt free to attack the Bulgarians. However, by then, the Bulgarians had become powerful, and were able to withstand his attacks. Around 917 AD, Bulgaria became the centre of the Christian Slavic world. However, in 1018, the Byzantines attacked again, and destroyed the first Great Bulgarian Empire. 

               The Scythians were a large group of loosely connected people who lived in Russia, and also further south around the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. By 600 BC, they took over some of the land to their south in modern Turkey for a while. They were remarkable for their fighting ability and civilization. They developed a class of wealthy aristocrats, who left elaborate graves filled with richly worked articles of gold and other precious materials. The Scythians worked in a wide variety of materials, including wood, leather, bone, appliqué felts, bronze, iron, silver, gold, and electrum.

              The Scythians were feared and admired for their prowess in war and, in particular, for their horsemanship. They were among the earliest people to master the art of riding, and their mobility astonished their neighbours.

               The Cimmerians were a nomadic tribe, living in Asia Minor in the seventh century BC. A few of them moved into the Crimea where they lingered on long enough to give that Black Sea peninsula its name. Most of them however moved south to the Middle East. The Cimmerians are credited with being the people who first domesticated the horse as symbols of wealth and status. However, they used it as a draft animal for about 500 years before they learned to ride it, going into battle on war chariots drawn by horses. 

 

 

               The Slavs first moved to Europe from West Asia around 2000 BC. They settled in the north -probably in modern Poland. About 100 or 200 AD, the Slavs crossed the Carpathian Mountains into present Slovakia and Romania. They crossed Danube, in the 500 AD, and settled in Greece.

               The Slavs were later attacked and defeated by Charlemagne. Charlemagne captured so many Slavs, and brought them back to France as slaves that their name has become the French - and English - word for slave. Most Slavs continued to live in Eastern Europe, where they gradually divided into three groups-the Polish Slavs, the Balkan Slavs, and the Russian Slavs. All three groups converted to Christianity before 1300 AD.

 

               Around 1000 AD, some of the Vikings who had been raiding France, got permission from the French king to settle down and live in France. They were called the Normans, which are short for North-Men, because they came from the North. The part of France where they lived is called Normandy today. In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, put together a huge army of 6000 men, along with several hundred ships. He invaded England, and at the Battle of Hastings, defeated another rival for the throne. William was crowned King of England.

               William, the Conqueror, took all the land away from the English church officials and nobles, and gave it all to his Norman friends. He also wanted local officials, under his control, in all the towns. So, he created a new office called a sheriff. A sheriff’s job was to collect taxes. William set up a council of Norman nobles and bishops. He called it the Great Council. By the 1200’s, the Great Council was called parliament... and it is called parliament to this day. 

               The Vikings came from the three countries of Scandinavia-Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. They came to Europe between 700 and 1100 AD. During this period, many Vikings left Scandinavia and travelled to other countries, such as Britain and Ireland. Some went to fight and steal treasure. Others settled down as farmers.

               The Vikings travelled in medium-sized sailing ships that were large enough to sail in the open sea, but small enough to navigate through the rivers of Europe. Norwegian Vikings sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean to Iceland and Greenland. About AD 1000, Vikings sailed to North America, and started a settlement there too. Danish Vikings went to France and founded Normandy. Danish Vikings also sailed south around Spain, and into the Mediterranean Sea. Swedish Vikings roamed along rivers into Russia. Viking traders could be found as far east as Constantinople, where they met people from Africa, Arabia and Asia.

The Vikings were great sailors and traders, but they were also fierce warriors, attacking and robbing villages all around the coasts of Europe. Is it any wonder that for nearly 300 years, the Vikings sparked fear in their enemies?

 

               Charlemagne was one of Europe’s most successful monarchs. He was crowned by the Pope on Christmas Day, 800 AD. One of the most important things Charlemagne did for his people was to introduce a jury system, which was trial by jury, instead of by ordeal. He turned his castle into a learning centre - inviting scholars from all over the world to take up residence there. He used his scholars to create illustrated manuscript that preserved knowledge. Charlemagne ruled his vast empire by using local officials called counts to help him. At least once a year, he paid surprise visits to his various counts to make sure they were managing things fairly and effectively. Charlemagne introduced a payment system for taxes using silver coins. He standardized the value of each coin.

               At the same time, Charlemagne also greatly expanded the size of his kingdom. He conquered France down to the Pyrenees Mountains, and even into Northern Spain. He crossed the Rhine River, and conquered Germany, Switzerland and Austria, even modern Hungary. To the north, he conquered Belgium. He also conquered the Lombards in Northern Italy. Charlemagne’s conquests, as well as his reforms and sponsorship of education and science all contributed to him being called ‘The Father of Europe’ by later generations.

 

               The Franks were also a Germanic tribe that had been living for some time in Northern Germany. The early Franks were, in fact, a loose confederation of tribes who shared a similar culture. Because they had not come into contact with Rome, they were still worshipping the old gods, and had not converted to Christianity.

               The Franks first settled in Northern France and Belgium, but around 490 AD, the Franks became Christians under a new, young, and ambitious king named Clovis, They began to fight their way south. Clovis established the independent development of the Frankish Church, and encouraged the growth of churches and abbeys as centres of learning.

               The Franks were legendary fighters. They fought with the Visigoths in 509 AD, and won. The Franks now took over all of France, except Burgundy. One of the greatest of their kings was Charlemagne. Using the strength and loyalty of his army, combined with his own leadership abilities, Charlemagne soon defeated most of the other barbarian tribes in Western Europe. He expanded the Frankish Empire to include Germany, all of France, most of Italy, and even sections of northern Spain.

               The name ‘Frank’ is closely related to the word that means ‘fierce’ or ‘free’ in the Frankish language- and the Franks was indeed a fearless people! 

               Have you heard the word ‘vandalism’? Vandalism is any kind of damage done on purpose, for no good reason. The word comes from ‘vandals’ which is the name of Germanic tribes that had a reputation for looting and sacking wherever they went. These tribes originally settled in Hungary, Romania, and Silesia. They were forced westward by the Huns and moved to Spain, and later to North Africa. They conquered Carthage in 439. Later, the Vandal leader, Geiseric built a powerful fleet and sailed to Italy to sack Rome. Eventually, the Vandals were defeated by the rulers of the Byzantine Empire.

               The Lombards were also a Germanic tribe. Their origin was in Southern Sweden. They worked their way down into Italy by the 6th century. There, they established permanent German rule in Italy, but became Italians in the process and gave their name to the Northern Italian region of Lombardia.

               The Lombards were always in conflict with the Popes, and had to continually defend themselves against attacks from the Franks, who were supporters of the Pope and the Byzantines. The Lombards were finally brought under the control of the Franks, and then the Normans. It is thought that their name refers either to their long beards, or to their long handled battle axes! 

            The Visigoths and Ostrogoths were originally Goths, a Germanic tribe who lived in what is now Scandinavia. In the third century AD, the Goths invaded the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, and during the fourth century, they broke into two groups. Those living north of the present-day Danube River became known as the Visigoths, while those living farther east, in present-day Ukraine, were called the Ostrogoths.

            When the Huns from Central Asia attacked the Goths, many of the Visigoths escaped into an eastern Roman province. Rebelling against the Roman rulers, the Visigoths destroyed the Roman army at a battle in Adrianople, and killed Valens, the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire.

            In 410, they destroyed the city of Rome. The Ostrogoths, on the other hand, were conquered by the Huns. After Attila, king of the Huns, died in 453, the Ostrogoths regained their independence. Most of them were at that time living in what is now Hungary.

            The Ostrogoths became a military power under King Theodoric. In 488, with encouragement from Zeno, the eastern emperor at Constantinople, Theodoric invaded Italy. However, after Justinian became emperor, he crushed the Ostrogoths in a long war, and the Ostrogoths soon lost their separate identity in Italy. 

               The origin of the Germanic peoples was in the fog shrouded forests on the North and Baltic Sea shores of Europe. The Germanic peoples are descended from explorers, who settled in extreme Northern Europe, and spoke a language that was a fusion of an Indo-European tongue, and the language of the Northern Megalithic culture. These two cultures, the Indo-European, and Northern Megalithic met and fused in Northern Europe sometime around 1600 BC.

               The Germanic tribes lived mostly by hunting, gathering wild herbs, cultivating crops, and raising cattle. They lived in small scattered villages and large farmsteads. Their religion glorified war, and their paradise - Valahalla was depicted as a place of endless feasts and contests. The family and clan were the cornerstone of their society, and the head of the house ruled over not only his own family, but also many servants and slaves.

               Germanic tribal migrations started in the mid 4th century. We can see that these migrations were a large contributory factor leading to the break-up of the Roman Empire. These groups all developed separate dialects, the basis for the differences among Germanic languages down to the present day.

               The ancient Germanic people made a considerable impact on the development of ancient Europe, particularly through their interactions with the Roman Empire. Today, the descendants of the ancient Germanics or Teutons are mainly to be found in Germany, Austria, and German speaking Switzerland, as well as in England, the Netherlands, Flemish and German speaking Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, Norway and Iceland. 

               The origin of the Celts remains shrouded in mystery, but what is known is that they spread throughout Europe because of their large scale migrations. Around 900 BC, the Celts began to arrive in the British Isles, where they lived in settlements as artisans and smiths, and mingled with the local people. After 400 BC, because of shortages in food and available land, some Celts migrated to Germany, Austria, and Italy. In 51 BC, Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, where the Celts had settled, and divided it into Roman provinces. This resulted in a gradual mingling of the Roman and Celtic cultures.

               The Celts gradually migrated to Transylvania and Dalmatia and intermingled with the native people. They pushed into Greece as far as Delphi, and large groups went as far as Asia Minor. One band settled in Turkey, and named this area Galatia.

               The Celts first burst into recorded history in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans in about 500 B.C, but they were by then, already a mighty and widespread people.