My Science School

               There are three scientists who are credited with the discovery of the element cerium. While Swedish chemists Jons Jacob Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger discovered the element in Sweden, Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German scientist, discovered it in his mother country. Both these discoveries were done independently of each other, in the year 1803.

               Cerium is named after the asteroid Ceres, a dwarf planet, which was discovered in 1801. The planet’s name derives from the Roman goddess of agriculture. Cerium is one abundant element.

               Cerium is a grey silvery-white metal. It decomposes slowly in cold water, and very rapidly in hot water. It is found in several minerals including allanite or orthrite, monazite, bastnasite, cerite and samarskite. Large deposits of cerium have been found in India, Brazil and in Southern California.

               Cerium burns when heated and is used in self-cleaning ovens. The film and television industry extensively uses it in carbon-arc lighting technology for studio lighting and projector lights.

               The atomic number of cerium is 58, and the atomic symbol is Ce.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

               Lanthanum is a soft and ductile metal. Ductility means the ability of a substance to be stretched long. Lanthanum can be easily pulled into a string. The softness of the metal enables it to be sliced into pieces with a kitchen knife.

               Lanthanum is silvery-white in colour. It was Carl Gustaf Mosander, a Swedish chemist, who discovered lanthanum in 1839. It wasn’t until 1923, though, that a fairly pure sample of the element was produced. Lanthanum is traditionally considered a rare metal because it is rarer than most elements found in their pure form on Earth. However, the element, in fact, is not rare at all as the concentration of the element in the earth’s crust is at about thirty-two parts per million.

               Lanthanum is an important factor in the manufacture of vacuum tubes, hydrogen alloys, medications, and it has high utility in molecular biology. Today, lanthanum is used as a component of nickel-metal hydride batteries, whose most important commercial utility is in hybrid cars. Lanthanum has the atomic number of 57, and its atomic symbol is La.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

               Barium is a soft silvery-white metal. The name of the element comes from the Greek word ‘barys’, meaning ‘heavy’. It is not generally found in nature in its pure form. Only compounds of the metal are available in the earth’s crust. Even though barium compounds were discovered in the 17th century itself, it was Humphry Davy who first isolated the metal in 1808.

               Barium has a wide range of uses. The element is used in rat poison and oil drilling fluids. Barium has important diagnostic utilities too. Patients suffering from digestive problems are given a non-toxic mixture that contains barium before an x-ray. This mixture shows up clearly on x-rays, allowing doctors to locate and diagnose the problem.

               An average adult human body contains about 22 mg of barium. Various vegetables that we consume everyday such as carrots, onions and beans contain barium. While barium does not build up in the body and is not a carcinogen, breathing its dust is unhealthy.

               In the late nineteenth century, barium’s key commercial use was in the production of pure oxygen. The atomic number of barium is 56 and its atomic symbol is Ba.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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               An atomic clock is supposed to be one of the most accurate time-keeping devices in human history. Caesium is what powers an atomic clock as its atoms keep it exact. The atomic clock is the device used as the standard measure of time. A second in the atomic clock is defined as the amount of time taken by the caesium atom to vibrate 919,26,31,770 times between energy levels!

               Caesium is a rare element. It is a silver-white, shiny metal with brilliant blue spectral lines. The element’s name comes from ‘caesius’, a Latin word meaning ‘sky blue’. It is the softest metal, with a consistency of wax at room temperature.

               Caesium will melt in your hands! However, be very cautious! The element might explode in the air, as it is highly reactive to moisture. Since caesium reacts violently with water, it is treated as a hazardous material, and is often kept under a layer of kerosene or mineral oil, or in a vacuum. This prevents the metal from reacting and igniting in the air.

               Caesium was the first element to be discovered with a spectroscope. It was discovered in 1860 by German chemists Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff when they were analyzing the spectrum of mineral water. Apart from its use in atomic clocks, caesium is used in excavation of petroleum. The atomic number of caesium is 55, and the symbol is Cs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

               Xenon is a trace element in the earth’s atmosphere. A trace element is an element whose presence in the atmosphere is negligible. Xenon is a very rare gas on our planet.

               Xenon was discovered in 1898 by William Ramsay, a Scottish chemist, and Morris Travers, an English scientist, who had discovered krypton and neon in the previous years. All three elements were isolated in similar fashion. The scientists extracted them by evaporating liquid air, and studying what remained in it.

               Although the gas is not very abundant in the earth’s atmosphere, the amount of xenon is exceptionally high in other planets, especially Jupiter. Jupiter has almost three times more of xenon than the Sun. The element is found in Mars’ atmosphere at about 0.08 parts per million.

               Xenon emits a blue glow when charged by electricity. Therefore, the element is used for very powerful flash lighting, lights simulating sunbeams, fog lights, road signs, and germ-killing food lamps. Xenon is vital to space vehicles as the element is used to power their engines.

               Although xenon is not toxic on its own, its compounds can be highly toxic. The atomic number of xenon is 54 and it is represented as Xe.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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               Iodine is a critical nutrient in human body; and therefore, it is an essential element for life itself.

               Iodine is best known for the vital role it plays in thyroid hormone production in humans. Its deficiency can lead to serious health problems, such as intellectual disability, cretinism, which is a condition of severe stunting of physical and mental growth, and goitre, which is the abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland.

               Barnard Courtois, a French chemist, discovered iodine in 1811. He named it iodine from the Greek word ‘iode’ which means violet. In vapour form, the element is violet in colour.

               In solid form, the element is blue-black in colour. Iodine is fairly rare in both the earth’s crust and in the solar system. It is the 63rd most common element in the earth’s crust. Iodine is soluble in water; and therefore, it is found more abundantly in oceans.

               Iodine has several commercial applications and can be found in a variety of pharmaceuticals, disinfectants, inks and dyes, catalysts, photography chemicals and animal feed supplements. However, it plays an important role in the production of medicines. Most iodine production in the world comes either from the Chilean caliche, a mineral, or from the oil field brines in the US.

               The atomic number of Iodine is 53, and the symbol is I.

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               Franz Joseph Muller von Reichenstein, an Austrian mineralogist, discovered tellurium in 1782. However, it was Martin Heinrich Klaproth, a German chemist, who named it tellurium. The element was named after ‘tellus’ which in Latin meant earth.

               Tellurium is one of the rarest elements on Earth. Its presence in nature is only as much as platinum. However, the element is abundant in space. One of the reasons for the rarity of the element is its volatile nature as it tends to escape to space as gas.

               Tellurium is sometimes found in its natural form, but it is more often found combined with gold, or other metals in mineral forms.

               Tellurium is added to copper and stainless steel to harden them, and improve their ability to be used in various machines. The element is also added to lead to make it harder and more acid-resistant for use in batteries. The US Department of Energy has estimated that the demand for tellurium will cause a deficiency by 2025. Compounds of tellurium are toxic, and eating them causes very unpleasant body odours and bad breath.

               The atomic number of tellurium is 52, and the symbol is Te.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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               The ancient world was familiar with the element antimony. An unknown alchemist had identified the element in the Middle Ages. Antimony is named after the Greek word ‘stibium’, which was the name of its compound known in the ancient times. Some say that antimony literally means ‘monk-killer’ as most early chemists were monks and the element was a notorious toxin that killed many who experimented with it.

               Antimony is a silvery, lustrous grey metal. It is a rare element, but can sometimes be found naturally. When the element is crushed into powder, antimony expands as it becomes a brittle, silvery and hard solid. Do you know that a compound of antimony was used in ancient Egypt as a form of eyeliner known as kohl?

                Antimony is used in the printing industry for type setting. The element is an important component in the production of batteries, bearings, and cable sheathing. The pure form of antimony is used to make certain types of semiconductor devices, such as diodes and infrared detectors. China is the top global producer of antimony, extracting between 84 per cent and 88 per cent of the supply. The atomic number of antimony is 51 and it is represented as Sb.

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               Tin is perhaps one of the oldest metals known to Man. Tin was familiar to Man in ancient times as he learned to add it to copper to make bronze, thus setting off the Bronze Age.

               Tin is an element perhaps best known for its use in tin cans. However, these days, such cans are almost always made of aluminium. Even the original tin cans, first introduced in the 1800s, were mostly steel, but plated with tin!

               Tin is the 49th most common element in the earth’s crust. Today, tin is used as a coating for steel to make tinplate. Tin is added to lead for soldering metals also. Tin added to silver and copper is used for dental amalgams. It is a component of pewter, metals for bells, and Babbitt metal in bearings.

               Tin is also used in art and decorations. The element is also important in Li-ion batteries and PVC plastics.

               Tin is represented as Sn, which comes from the Latin word stannum. Stannum was known to be an alloy of lead and silver. The atomic number of tin is 50.

            The name of the element indium comes from the bright indigo coloured line in its spectrum.

            Have you heard of metals that let out loud cries? They certainly do not cry as humans or animals do. One of indium’s most unusual properties is that it has this ‘tin cry’ or a squeaking sound, that resembles a scream when it’s bent.

            Indium was first isolated in 1863 by German chemists Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Theodor Richter. In the earth’s crust, it is the 68th most common element. Indium is relatively rare in the earth, and is typically found in zinc ores. It’s also found in some lead, copper and iron ores.

            Indium is indispensable in the manufacture of LCD monitors, televisions and display screens; and therefore, its demand has increased greatly over the years. Due to this demand, the price of indium per kilogramme also has increased almost tenfold since 2002.

            About 4 million troy ounces of indium is produced annually across the globe today. Canada, China and Russia are the major producers of the element. The atomic number of indium is 49, and the atomic symbol is In.

 

               Cadmium is a soft metal, bluish silvery-white in colour. In 1817, Friedrich Stromeyer, a German chemist, discovered cadmium after isolating it from zinc carbonate. Another German, Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann, had also discovered the element in the same year. The name comes from the Latin word ‘cadmia’, the name for the calamine ore.

               In bulk, cadmium is non-flammable, but will burn and release poisonous fumes when in a powder form. Earlier, cadmium was used in the manufacture of paints and screws but now it is not used for those purposes as the element is found to be toxic.

               Cadmium is naturally resistant to corrosion; and therefore, it is often used as a protective coating on metals. Cadmium electroplating is especially common for aircraft. The element plays a key role in the production of rechargeable batteries, specifically nickel-cadmium batteries. It also plays a significant role in nuclear energy, as cadmium serves as both a barrier and as an alloy for pressurized water reactors.

               The atomic number of cadmium is 48, and its atomic symbol is Cd.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

               Silver, like gold, is a popular metal for making ornaments. It is a beautifully shiny metal, but it has often had to play second fiddle to gold.

               Silver was known to prehistoric humans. People of ancient civilizations as early as 3000 BC, knew how to separate silver from lead. In the past, silver was extracted from other minerals through an interesting method.

               The metal was placed in a shallow cup called a cupel and heated under a strong gust of air. This process removed the other metals, leaving small round drops of liquid silver.

               Silver has been the most favourite metal for making coins and jewellery from the beginning of civilizations. It is used in the production of adornments, mirrors and photo-optics, musical instruments, dentistry and medications, photography, and many more. Nowadays the element has been used in wound-dressings as it has the ability to destroy many bacteria and viruses.

               Silver is generally found in copper or lead ores and the element is extracted from these minerals.  Since the 1500s, several countries have been mining silver. Mexico is the world leader in silver mining and is followed by Peru.

               Silver is sensitive to light, so silver compounds are coated onto the film of x-rays and photographic prints to make the images. Silver has the atomic number of 47, and it is represented as Ag which stands for ‘Argentum’ which is the Latin word for the metal.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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               Have you seen any ornament made of white gold? White gold jewellery is supposed to be more expensive than regular gold ornaments because of the presence of an expensive element called palladium. Shiny and silvery, the element palladium is what gives white gold its colour.

               Palladium is a crucial component of fuel cells and catalytic converters. It is a very rare element, rarer than gold or platinum. The element is malleable and doesn’t tarnish in air, as it does not react with oxygen. These qualities make it a popular metal for jewellery. Hydrogen gas can filter through it, so palladium is used to remove hydrocarbons from fuels.

               Palladium was discovered in 1803. The metal was first isolated by William Hyde Wollaston, an English chemist. Palladium gets its name from the asteroid 2 Pallas, the second-largest asteroid in the asteroid belt, which had just been discovered in 1802. The asteroid itself was named after the ancient Greek goddess Pallas Athena.

               Palladium is found only in rare minerals. The only palladium mine in the United States is the Stillwater Mine in Montana; other mines are in Canada, South Africa and Russia. Russia is the world’s largest palladium producer.

               The atomic number of palladium is 46, and its atomic symbol is Pd.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

              When asked to name some expensive elements in the world, many would readily name gold and silver. However, there are many other precious elements in the world. Rhodium is one among them. It is a silver-white element. It is costlier than gold or silver.

              Rhodium was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston, an English chemist. He had just discovered the element palladium in the previous year. Rhodium derives its name from the Greek word ‘rhodon’, meaning rose, named for the rose-red colour of its salts. It is one of the rarest elements, ranging up to only .00002 parts per million (ppm) in the earth’s crust.

             Rhodium does not play any significant role in life processes, and has no known biological use.

             While some compounds of rhodium are believed to be carcinogenic, there are almost no reported cases of humans being affected by this element in any way. This may be due to the fact that we rarely come in contact with rhodium compounds in everyday life.

             The atomic number of rhodium is 45 and it is represented as Rh.

               The first impure form of ruthenium was discovered in Russia. In the Latin language, Russia is known as Ruthenia. Therefore, the element ruthenium gets its name from Russia. And that is the connection between Russia and ruthenium.

               Although many scientists claimed that they had discovered the element in the first half of the 19th century, it was Karl Ernst Klaus, a Russian chemist, who successfully isolated the element in 1844.

              The Native Americans knew the use of the metal many years before its discovery. Ruthenium is the seventy-third most common metal on Earth. It is an extremely rare metal in nature. Due to its scarcity, only around twenty tonnes of ruthenium is produced annually.

               Pentlandite is the mineral from which most of the ruthenium is mined. Adding ruthenium is one of the most effective ways to harden platinum and palladium. Ruthenium can also be extracted from nuclear waste such as uranium-235.

               Ruthenium is used most commonly for creating a coating over electrical contacts for wear-resistance. Ruthenium’s atomic number is 44, and it is represented as Ru.

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