My Science School

Earth can be divided up into a number of different types of landscape. These zones are called biomes. Every biome is home to a particular group of plants and animals that are suited to the conditions found there.

A biome is different from an ecosystem. An ecosystem is the interaction of living and nonliving things in an environment. A biome is a specific geographic area notable for the species living there. A biome can be made up of many ecosystems. For example, an aquatic biome can contain ecosystems such as coral reefs and kelp forests.

Mountains

Mountains are high places with a cold, windy climate. It gets colder the higher up you go, so different groups of plants and animals are found at different heights. Winds are another factor that make mountain biomes different from the areas around them. By nature of their topography, mountains stand in the path of winds. Winds can bring with them precipitation and erratic weather changes.

That means that the climate on the windward side of a mountain (facing the wind,) will likely be different from that of the leeward side (sheltered from the wind.) The windward side of a mountain will be cooler and have more precipitation, while the leeward side will be drier and warmer. 

 Deserts

Deserts are very dry, as there is little or no rainfall. They can be very hot or very cold. The plants and animals found in deserts have adapted to living in these extreme conditions. Due to the availability of little moisture in the air to capture and hold on to the heat emanating from the high temperatures during the day, desert nights are typically cold. A combination of extreme temperature fluctuations and incredibly low levels of water makes the desert biome a very harsh land mass to live in.

Temperatures are so extreme during the day because there is very little moisture in the atmosphere to block out the sun’s rays. This means that the sun’s energy is absorbed on the ground surface. The ground surface then heats up the surrounding air.

Wetlands

Wetlands are permanently flooded with water. This can be salt water, fresh water, or a mixture of both. Swamps, bogs, marshes, and deltas are all types of wetlands. Many birds thrive in this environment. Plant matter is released into freshwater biomes from a wetland biome. The importance of this is that it allows for fish to have plenty of types of food for them to survive. Florida has one of the largest wetland biomes in the world. The humid conditions are perfect for such forms of plant and animal life to be able to survive.

Rainforests

Rainforests get a lot of rain. Most of then also get a lot of sunlight, and are very hot all year round. They are home to many different plants and animals. The largest rainforest is the tropical Amazon rainforest in South America.

Rainforest plants have made many adaptations to their environment. With over 80 inches of rain per year, plants have made adaptations that helps them shed water off their leaves quickly so the branches don't get weighed down and break. Many plants have drip tips and grooved leaves, and some leaves have oily coatings to shed water.

Many species of animal life can be found in the rain forest. Common characteristics found among mammals and birds (and reptiles and amphibians, too) include adaptations to a life in the trees, such as the prehensile tails of New World monkeys. Other characteristics are bright colors and sharp patterns, loud vocalizations, and diets heavy on fruits.

Insects make up the largest single group of animals that live in tropical forests. They include brightly colored butterflies, mosquitoes, camouflaged stick insects, and huge colonies of ants.

Deciduous forests

The temperature and rainfall in deciduous forests changes from season to season. During the autumn and winter, most trees change colour and lose their leaves. The animals adapt to the climate by hibernating in the winter and living off the land in the other three seasons. The animals have adapted to the land by trying the plants in the forest to see if they are good to eat for a good supply of food. Also the trees provide shelter for them. Animal use the trees for food and a water sources. Most of the animals are camouflaged to look like the ground.

The plants have adapted to the forests by leaning toward the sun. Soaking up the nutrients in the ground is also a way of adaptation.

Coniferous forests

These forests have long, cold, snowy winters and short, warm summers. Trees here have adapted to this harsh climate. They are mostly evergreen, meaning they stay green all year round. Precipitation is significantly high in coniferous forest biomes. The average annual precipitation in coniferous rain forest biomes ranges from 300 to 900 mm. A few temperate coniferous forests get more than 2000 mm of rain annually. The total amount of precipitation received in this biome hinges on its location. For instance, in northern coniferous forests, winters tend to be lengthy, cold and relatively dry, whereas the short summers tend to be moderately warm and moist. In areas of lower latitudes, precipitation tends to be equally spread out all year round. During winter months, precipitation falls as snow, while in the summer, it falls as rain.

Grasslands

Grasslands get little rainfall only grass and a few small trees and bushes can grow in these dry places. But many animals, such as zebras and elephants, manage to live there. There is a large area of grassland that stretch from the Ukraine of Russia all the way to Siberia. This is a very cold and dry climate because there is no nearby ocean to get moisture from. Winds from the arctic aren't blocked by any mountains either. These are known as the Russian and Asian steppes.

In the winter, grassland temperatures can be as low as -40° F, and in the summer it can be as high 70° F. There are two real seasons: a growing season and a dormant season. The growing season is when there is no frost and plants can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days). During the dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow because its too cold.

Tundra

It is usually very cold and windy in the tundra, and there is not much rain. The ground is often covered in snow, so only a few plants and animals can live there. Mountain goats, sheep, marmots, and birds live in mountain—or alpine—tundra and feed on the low-lying plants and insects. Hardy flora like cushion plants survive in the mountain zones by growing in rock depressions, where it is warmer and they are sheltered from the wind. The Arctic tundra, where the average temperature is -30 to 20 degrees Fahrenheit (-34 to -6 degrees Celsius), supports a variety of animal species, including Arctic foxes, polar bears, gray wolves, caribou, snow geese, and musk oxen. The summer growing season is just 50 to 60 days, when the sun shines up to 24 hours a day.

Polar ice

This is the coldest biome on Earth. The freezing temperatures make it difficult for any plants to survive. During the summer, the sun could shine for 24 hours per day and the temperature would still not go over 0 degrees Celsius. In the winter, the opposite occurs; there is no sunshine whatsoever during the winter and as a result, the temperatures will go even lower than usual. Animals, such as polar bears, penguins, and seals, have adapted well to life here. One of the most recognizable feature of a polar ice biome is the presence of permanent ice. As a result, no vegetation can grow here except for some microscopic algae.

 

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“Sit there until you finish your peas.”

“If you don’t have room for salad, you don’t have room for dessert.”

“Just take three more bites.”

“If you don’t eat what’s on your plate, you won’t get anything for the rest of the night.”

Parents say and do all sorts of things to get their children to eat. Some threaten, others bargain, and some make their children sit at the dinner table for hours after the rest of the family has left.

As most parents find out, coercion doesn’t “cure” a picky eater. Parents need only think back to their own childhoods. They were probably forced to try a food that was unappetizing or to finish eating when they were already full. Some people never get over such experiences; one father who was forced to have spinach as a child still won’t it.

Picky eating is usually the result of stress and arguments about the quantity and variety of food. Parents who pressure their child at meal-time may make her lose her appetite. A child who has no control over what, when, and how much she eats feels powerless and frustrated - as an adult in the same situation would. She may angrily demand certain foods or react passively by picking at what’s on her plate and taking tiny bites. In either case, she’s not consciously trying to manipulate her parents, but rather acting out her sense of helplessness.

Picky eaters may avoid tastes and textures they find unappealing. In some stressful situations, a child may be psychologically unable to eat certain foods. One girl found cooked vegetables so repulsive she cried at the thought of eating them.

Picky eaters also may refuse to try new foods—perhaps they’ve been pressured too often to taste something different. A child who has faced frequent arguments about trying or finishing new foods finds it safer to stick to the few dishes she likes.

Parents may inadvertently create a picky eater if they pressure their child to eat large quantities of food or finish what’s on her plate. A child with a small appetite can’t help but feel upset if she’s urged to eat more, and more often, than she wants.

When parents try to coerce her into eating, the results usually are negative. First, meals become unpleasant times of arguments and power struggles. Also, children resort to sneakiness, either taking the foods they want (usually sweets) or secretly disposing of foods they won’t eat. Some children hide their unwanted food into their napkin, and then throw the napkin away. One child managed to slide her peas behind the refrigerator. Another put bits of food on her father’s plate when he wasn’t looking. And there are always children who feed their food to the family pet.

If your child is a picky eater, the first approach you should try is removing mealtime pressure. Although your goal is to keep your child well-nourished and healthy, you shouldn’t force her to eat. Children who willingly eat well-balanced meals and try a variety of foods usually have been fed with a low-stress approach. From an early age, they’ve been allowed to pick and choose, without pressure, from an assortment of foods that are acceptable to their parents. If you create such an atmosphere in your home now, your child’s eating habits likely will improve.

First, let her determine how much she wants to eat. Since her eating patterns are well-established, you have a realistic idea of her appetite. Don’t urge her to eat more than she usually does. She’ll eat enough to keep from being hungry. If you believe she’s underweight or exceptionally small, don’t force her to eat extra food. Instead, discuss your concerns with your pediatrician, who may offer suggestions or otherwise reassure you.

When possible, prepare foods that you know your child will eat, and don’t pressure her to try new foods. Once she feels she can accept or reject something new without angering you, she may be more willing to taste what you offer. You also can try giving her choices - if she doesn’t eat carrots, offer her another vegetable or a different healthy food.

Be careful not to humiliate or tease her about being a picky eater. If you let her know you accept her eating habits, she’ll feel more relaxed at mealtimes. You may be embarrassed if she acts picky when eating at someone else’s house, but you can help ease the pressure there, too. Usually, others will pay no attention to what she eats. If your host asks ahead of time, let her know that your child has a small appetite or eats only certain foods. Most people are understanding of children’s needs.

If you eliminate mealtime stress and your child is still excessively picky, look further for reasons. She may feel overly controlled in other areas of her life and may try to exert some power by rejecting food. It’s also possible that she will remain a picky eater no matter what you do. Some people, including adults, are just very particular about food.

It takes patience to deal with a picky eater, but the rewards can be great. Once your child believes she has some control over what she eats, both she and you will feel calmer. Then, instead of focusing on what and how much she’s eating, your family can concentrate on enjoying mealtimes together.

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      Some children still periodically climb into their parents’ bed. Kids who formed this habit during their early years may take a while to grow out of it. Originally they had a strong emotional need to be with their parents at night. After the need is gone, the habit may linger.

      Many parents are not concerned about the practice, primarily because their child goes to sleep in his own bed as independently as other kids his age do. Although he spends many nights on his own, he still sometimes prefers, with gradually decreasing frequency, to be with his parents if he wakes during the night.

       Some children seek comfort with their parents because they’ve had a nightmare or they aren’t feeling well. Others find their way into their parents’ bed during times of stress or after their parents return from a vacation. If parents’ busy schedules leave little time for him, he may want to sleep in their bed as a way of having contact with them. Most often, however, children climb into their parents’ bed out of habit. The habit will eventually disappear during these years.

       If you’re bothered by your child’s continuing nighttime visits and want to end them now, talk to him about the situation. He’s old enough to understand and accept your expectations. Tell him, “Since you’re getting older, we want you to sleep in your bed for the whole night. If you need us during the night, come and let us know.” He may follow your wishes immediately or slowly adjust to the new routine.

      If he resists sleeping in his own room, try to find out why. One set of parents discovered that their daughter came into their bed at night to stop them from arguing. Ask your child what he thinks will help him stay in his own bed. Suggest that he sleep with a stuffed animal or an extra light. You might even try rearranging his room to make it more comfortable. More than anything, he will be helped by your reassurance.

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      Many parents believe that six- to nine-year-old should go to bed on their own without arguing, and when their own child doesn’t, they feel frustrated. They get tired of saying, “Brush your teeth.” “Now put on your pajamas.” “Now put your clothes away.” They also are bothered if she dawdles or gets up once she’s been put to bed.

     Independent bedtime habits develop slowly. Most children can fall asleep without having their parents stay with them, and many can take care of their middle-of-the-night needs: going to the bathroom, getting a drink, finding an extra blanket. However, it’s still common for young children to need help at bedtime. Most require prodding at night and some won’t get ready at all unless their parents guide them through almost every step of the process. All these reminders are necessary because they have difficulty separating themselves from their activities. They’d much rather continues playing or watching TV. And because bedtime is of no interest to them, they’re easily distracted and need to be kept on track. The procrastination that bothers so many parents is the result of the young child’s inability to focus on something she doesn’t want to do.

     Children this age also need their parents for bedtime rituals, which continue to be important. Some kids can’t go to sleep without a story, a conversation, or a hug and a kiss. In busy families or on rushed days, bedtime may be the only time parents and children have quiet contact.

     While most children need some parental help at night, if your child has consistent trouble at bedtime, try to find out why. Observe her and talk to her about the problem. Depending on her age, there might be a simple explanation. Perhaps she’s hungry and needs a snack in the evening. She may avoid bedtime because she’s afraid of imaginary creatures or the dark and wants to put off going to sleep as long as possible. If that’s the case, spend fifteen minutes or so in her room while she falls asleep; try keeping a light on at night or suggesting that she sleep with a personal treasure or newly received gift. She may also sleep more securely in a room shared with a sibling.

     Your child may have trouble because she simply isn’t tired. Some parents, understandably eager for time alone in the evenings, set early bedtimes without considering their child’s actual sleep needs. If you know that your child isn’t sleepy, you can send her to bed later or set a flexible bedtime, including later hours on weekends. As an alternative to changing her bedtime, you can stick to the early hour but allow her to do something quiet in her room, such as read, draw, do a puzzle, or listen to music before she falls asleep.

     If her bedtime problems just seem to be habitual, you’ll have to set limits and tell her the consequences of too much dawdling: “If you don’t get ready quickly, you won’t have time to play before bed.” “When you take so long to get in bed, I don’t have time to read to you.” It’s important to anticipate evening struggles rather than let annoyances build up to an angry battle of wills.

      You also can try rewarding your child for getting ready on time: “If you’re in bed in five minutes, I’ll let you listen to a tape before you fall asleep.” One child would get ready quickly in order to hear favorite stories about her family.

      Bedtime will be less stressful if you try to be patient and remember that your child will gradually assume her own bedtime responsibilities. Meanwhile, as long as she responds to your reminders and does get ready, you don’t have to worry or feel defeated. If there are evening arguments, try to resolve them with a bedtime talk. Discuss what happened that day, tell your child about something exciting that’s coming up, suggest that you both try a little harder to cooperate with each other, and remind her of how special she is.

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       As a child approaches the end of his preschool years, his parents begin to consider his readiness for kindergarten. Some parents confidently envision their child in kindergarten, but others, particularly those whose children have mid- to late-in-the-year birthdays, wonder if he’s ready for this major step. There are school districts that require children with late birthdays to wait an extra year before starting kindergarten, but most districts let parents choose whether to enroll their child during his fifth or sixth year. Because a child’s success in the first year of school lays the foundation for later success, the decision to send a child to kindergarten must be made carefully and in his best interests.  

       Parents sometimes assume that a child who’s been to day care or nursery school is automatically prepared for kindergarten, but it’s a different experience in a number of ways. Children in kindergarten are expected to spend scheduled amounts of time sitting and working on specific academic skills. Although play is considered part of the daily program, emphasis is placed on group and individual academic work and on following a set curriculum. Kindergartners become part of a large school community that operates under new rules and expectations. And children find that their parents, who are excited about kindergarten, may begin to put emphasis on “doing well.”

       Chronological age is the major factor determining kindergarten readiness, but naturally there are related factors parents should consider: cognitive or intellectual development, social and emotional development, and physical size. If a child is five to eleven months younger than other kindergartners, he may display behavior that’s significantly different from his classmates’. Even if he’s advanced in one area of development such as academics, he may generally be functioning at a level lower than expected for his age group.

       Another area of concern should be social and emotional development. A child who’s socially or emotionally immature may have a difficult time accommodating to his teacher’s demands. He may seem unwilling to behave as kindergartners should, when actually he’s unable to act more mature. He may have a hard time working and playing cooperatively with his classmates and this may cause him to be labeled a “behavior problem.” Naturally, if he’s labeled this way, his self-image will be affected, and ultimately, he may continue misbehaving because he feels frustrated and angry over his inability to do what’s expected of him.

       A child who lags behind socially but is advanced academically poses a dilemma for his parents, who may be concerned about holding him back an extra year. They may think he will not be challenged in academic areas if he waits and attends kindergarten with younger children, yet, if the imbalance between social and intellectual development is striking, he’s probably not developmentally ready for kindergarten.

       To evaluate overall readiness for kindergarten, parents should first look at their child’s cognitive development. When a child is functioning academically below kindergarten level, he sometimes can be helped through individualized instruction from teachers and specialists. But the child who’s lagging behind often has a hard time catching up because learning in certain areas is too difficult for him. Despite the instructional support, he might think he’s “not as good” as his peers, and he may feel unnecessary stress because he can’t cope with the demands of school. When this happens, he’ll probably show signs of disliking school, say he hates school, or exhibit behavioral problems. Academic struggles in kindergarten often establish a pattern that can continue for years.

      Another factor parents should consider is size and physical development. When a child is several months younger than the average kindergarten student, he also may be smaller than his classmates. Size and age are important to young children, who frequently check each other to see who’s tallest or oldest. And since children often begin to lose their teeth during the kindergarten year, a younger child might be frustrated and unhappy if he doesn’t lose teeth when his older friends do. Being the youngest and smallest can put a child in a vulnerable position in the classroom, although this naturally would be more of a problem for a child who’s reserved and quiet rather than boisterous and outgoing.

       If you’re unsure about your child’s readiness for kindergarten, seek opinions from others, including professionals. If your child has been to day care or nursery school, the first people you contact will probably be his teachers. Since they have a basic understanding of kindergarten requirements and have had many opportunities to observe children, they’ll be able to advise you. As long as you like and trust them, their judgment may be very helpful. If you continue to have questions, seek the opinion of a developmental specialist who assesses school readiness. Your pediatrician also may be of help in addressing your concerns. Friends who have held their children back a year can share their thoughts with you, and elementary school counselors or principals will discuss the issue and offer information on kindergarten readiness.

       Most parents who have held their children back a year have not regretted the extra time for growing and maturing. The child who starts kindergarten when he’s developmentally ready is better able to meet academic demands and get along with others throughout his schooling. When children don’t have to struggle to keep up, they develop a strong sense of self-confidence, and this provides a good foundation for the school years.

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       Parents enroll their child in community recreation classes so he can pick up new skills and enjoy himself. Sometimes these classes are well-run and satisfying, but other times they’re poorly taught and disappointing. In order to choose classes wisely, parents should try to observe programs before registering, and consider which activities are most appropriate. Then, once class sessions begin, they should monitor the program and help their child adjust.

      Before you sign up for a class, watch a session taught by the instructor your child will have. Although it may be difficult for you to arrange an observation, it’s worth the effort. Many recreation programs sound exciting when described in catalogs and brochures, but turn out to be boring or inadequate. If possible, take your child along so he can let you know if he’s interested.

       As you watch a class session, ask yourself these questions: how structured is the program? Does it look like fun? Do the children seem to be enjoying themselves? How does the instructor respond to a child who’s hesitant about joining the group? Is there unnecessary pressure on children to conform and achieve? Does the teacher seem to nurture creativity? Does she say, “I like the way you did that,” rather than, “You can do better than that?” Does she accept a child’s limitations? How large is the class? Do children get a chance to show the teacher what they can do? Do they have to spend much time waiting for turns?

      If you decide to enroll your child in a class, briefly prepare him for the first session. Talk to him about the instructors, the equipment, the clothes he’ll wear, and any friends who’ll be in the class. Let him know about transportation arrangements and where you’ll be while the class meets. And since most children wonder about the availability of bath-rooms, tell him that the recreation program has bathrooms.

       On the first day of class, you’ll notice that some children quickly join in the activities while others have difficulty adjusting. If your child is reluctant to get involved, you might feel discouraged and embarrassed, especially if the other class members are having an easy time. You might also feel alone, questioning your parenting abilities and wondering what you’ve done to make your child shy and unwilling to participate. You might feel angry at your child, particularly if it was his idea to take the class.

       In such a situation, a supportive teacher can help by smiling, waving, coming over to talk, and generally letting your child know he’s accepted even if he doesn’t choose to participate right away. You’ll also feel more comfortable if the other parents in the group are supportive rather than judgmental. While you’re encouraging your child to participate, try not to pressure him but rather accept his hesitancy and, if necessary, sit with him until he’s ready to join the group.

       In later class sessions, he may continue to resist joining in or may become disenchanted with the program. Perhaps the instructor overwhelms him, the other children seem too big, he’s not ready to separate from you, the teachers’ (or your) expectations create too much pressure, he’s unwilling to join in because you’re watching, or the class is not what he thought it would be. He may have had his own fantasies about the program, imagining he’d be free to jump on the trampoline, do somersaults, or improvise his own craft projects. But most programs allow little freedom--children are told what to do and how to do it, and they spend a lot of time waiting for their turns.

       It’s not unusual for a child’s interest in a recreation program to dwindle as the weeks go by. You may hear, “I’ll go another day,” or “I don’t want to go.” Often because of a rigid structure or intense competition, the classes stop being fun. Think back to your own experience with recreation programs. The classes that you enjoyed and continued to attend were ones that provided fun, acceptance, and positive feedback. The ones you disliked made you feel unaccepted and pressured.

       If your child wants to drop out of a recreation class, discuss the situation with him and then with the instructors. They can help you decide whether you should spend some sessions helping your child adjust, or whether he should stop attending. Don’t force him to continue in a class he’s not enjoying, since such pressure is likely to increase his resistance to all classes. And don’t worry that quitting will make him a habitual “quitter.” He’s too young to have understood what he was getting into, or to need a lesson in perseverance. Just continue to expose him to a variety of experiences and activities so he can figure Out what interests him and develop new skills.

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       ADD has become a common--and at times controversial--childhood “disorder.” Children are diagnosed with it when they have trouble paying attention to tasks, especially ones they’re not interested in. While a preschooler may be identified as having ADD, more often a child is diagnosed during the early elementary years, when his teachers or parents begin complaining about how distractible he is: “He just doesn’t focus.” “He’s too hard to handle.”

       There’s no consistent chemical evidence for ADD, and while it’s certainly a real disorder, a growing number of people feel that it’s over-diagnosed by pediatricians, therapists, and even educators. Children who truly have ADD typically have additional neurobiological difficulties, including visual, auditory, or motor problems. But any child who says, “I forgot,” and who dawdles before going to school, procrastinates over homework or chores, is boisterous or temperamental, or gets involved in something other than what he’s directed to do could potentially be labeled ADD and medicated for the condition.

       One mother reported two examples of what she believed was ADD behavior in her five-year-old: “He sits at dinner with one leg hanging off the side of the chair, and he doesn’t listen when I tell him to stay close by me in the mall.” When asked what she does about these things, she responded, “Nothing! He has ADD so he can’t help it.”

      Too often, the diagnosis of ADD and the medication that follows are either a catch-all method of dealing with a seemingly difficult, but normal, child or an excuse for not setting firm limits, spending time with him, and meeting his needs at home or at school. Parents and teachers worried by the increase in ADD need to know that there are a variety of other, more common reasons why a young child would have trouble listening to adults or paying attention to his responsibilities.

       Many children are simply spirited by nature, or they may act out in aggressive ways because they’re not receiving enough calm, positive attention. A child may feel stress because of his parents’ divorce, a new sibling, or school pressures. Often, parents haven’t helped their child learn to get along with others, and haven’t given him enough guidance and discipline.

       A rarely discussed contributor to ADD-like behavior can be day care, where many children, starting at age two, follow a rigid schedule initiated by teachers. Frequent changes from one activity to another mean a child can’t focus for long periods or get involved in something interesting without constant interruptions. The schedule basically trains him not to pay careful attention.

       Here is a typical day for a young child in a day care program. He may wake as early as 5:30 A.M. so his family can leave home by 6:00 to get to day care by 6:30. He’s rushed as he gets dressed, and there’s time to play before driving off. Once he arrives at the day care center his schedule is packed (only naptime lasts longer than an hour).

 6:30 A.M.              Arrives and says good-bye to his parents whom he won’t see again for ten to twelve hours.

6:30-7:00               Breakfast

7:00-8:00               Table games, puzzles, quiet activities

8:00-8:30               Story

8:30-9:15               Art activity

9:15-9:45               Snacks

9:45-10:30             Outdoor play

10:30-11:15          Circle time with teacher-directed activity

11:15-11:30          Wash up and prepare for lunch

11:30-12:00           Lunch

12:00-2:00             Nap

2:00-2:30               Snack                                                                                                                         

2:30-3:15              Outdoor play

3:15-4:00               free play

4:00-4:30               Story

4:30-5:00                Music

5:00-6:00                Table activities, puzzles, Lagos, clean up, and preparation to leave.

       At 6:00 P.M., the child is picked up and taken home or on an errand. His family arrives home between 6:30 and 7:00, and he plays or watches TV until dinner. Then he plays for a short while before bath, story, and bed at 8:30, or later if he had a long nap at day care.

       Children do this day after day, often for four or five years. While the day care schedule may seem to keep them busy and enriched, it actually operates counter to their needs. According to development list Erik Erikson, preschoolers have important tasks at this developmental stage: they need to initiate ideas; plan, carry out, and persevere in activities; and set goals. This is how they learn to focus, concentrate, and follow through.

       Yet, children in many day care programs are not focusing and following through enough. All day, they’re required to share or give up whatever they’re using before they’re done. They often don’t have time to finish what they start before teachers interrupt to get them ready for the next activity. The starting and stopping and the lack of flexibility keep them from learning to concentrate for extended periods. The frustration can make them uncooperative and fidgety. By the time a child gets to kindergarten or first grade, his teachers may be pointing out his ADD-like behavior.

       If you suspect your child has ADD or if he’s already been diagnosed, don’t give him medication unless you and your physician believe it’s absolutely necessary. There are many other strategies you can try first. If he’s in day care, look for programs with more flexible schedules. Limit TV, video game, and computer time; instead, spend more time with him, playing together and paying attention to his interests. Highlight his capabilities, nurture his curiosity, and give him opportunities to initiate activities. Slow down, let him finishes what he starts, and doesn’t stress clean-up over discovery and creativity.

       You also need to make discipline a priority. Set clear limits on his inappropriate behavior, follow through with consequences, and redirect him toward more positive activities. Look for underlying reasons for his misbehavior. Help him learn to control his impulses, and consistently teach him right from wrong.

       All children have some trouble concentrating, especially when they’d rather be doing something else. If your child shows ADD-like behavior it will take time for him to learn to focus on important tasks. But with your involvement and patience and his teachers’ cooperation, he should eventually be able to follow directions and pay attention without needing medication.

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       Many preschool and day care programs claim to be “academic,” teaching very young children to count, recite the alphabet, and learn various concepts. Such emphasis on educational activities is part of a larger, society-wide push to have children learn more, faster. Publishers put out educational books and software; toy companies manufacture educational games; television shows teach the alphabet and numbers. Because of pressure from friends, neighbors, some child development professionals, and the media, many parents feel concerned if their two-, three- or four-year-old hasn’t yet learned shapes, colors, letters, and numbers.

       It’s possible to teach a young child to memorize and then recite back almost any short list, including the numbers from one to ten and the alphabet. But comprehension of such concepts doesn’t usually begin until she’s four to six years old. A three-year-old may know that saying “1, 2, 3, 4,” is called counting, but she probably won’t understand that the number 6 represents six objects. To her, learning the alphabet is like learning to recite in a foreign language without knowing the meaning of the words.

       A child can’t be taught to understand concepts before she is ready. Gradually, as she experiments with objects, questions her parents and other people, observes her environment, and explores, she’ll learn what words and numbers mean. If her natural curiosity is encouraged and she has materials to experiment with, she’ll learn concepts easily. But too much emphasis on early education may discourage her and diminish her natural drive to learn. Parents should wait until their child shows a spontaneous interest in letters, words, and concepts, and then follow up on what she can do.

       There’s no need for schools and parents to provide excessive amounts of educational materials for young children. Colors, shapes, numbers, and words are part of whatever children do, so they learn about these things naturally. Every day, a child hears, “Put on your blue shorts,” “Do you want the red or the green crayon?” “Here are three crackers,” “Look at that big truck.” She has constant exposure to such concepts as same and different (milk is different than juice, Morn is different than Dad), soft and hard, big and little. She hears adults counting, sees them reading, and observes letters and numbers everywhere. She gets a natural jump on literacy when her parents read to her daily, patiently repeating her favorite stories.

       You will gradually hear your child ask, “How many is this?” “What color is this?” “What does this say?” She’ll begin to count out loud, at first getting the numbers out of order, and she’ll write letters on paper, often creating nonsense words or writing her name backwards. Try not to correct her but rather encourage her to keep counting and keep writing. She’ll learn at her own pace—without pressure because she’s interested and self-motivated. Then, starting with kindergarten and first grade, you’ll see her make great strides in literacy and math.

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       When parents work full-time outside the home, they often send their child to a day care center. Yet, eight to twelve hours a day, five days a week is a long time for parents and children to be apart, and the separation takes an emotional toll on parents. They miss their child particularly when he first begins a program, and they worry about the care he’s receiving. Is he happy? Safe? Are his teachers taking an interest in him? Does he have friends?

       Parents may feel guilty because they fear that day care will have a negative effect on their child. If they see his behavior change, they wonder if it’s because of his program. They feel bad about not spending enough time with him, and a mother, especially, may wonder whether she should have gone to work full-time in the first place. Even when parents and child are together in the evenings, the effects of work and day care continue. There’s never enough time together at home and parents who want time for themselves feel guilty about not paying enough attention to their child.

       If you’re concerned about having your child in a full-time program, your feelings are natural. There are things you can do to lessen your guilt and worry and to solve some of the child care-related problems you experience. The most important step is to reassure yourself about your child’s well-being by staying in close contact with his teachers. Call the center periodically and find out how he’s doing. If the teachers agree (and they should), ask that he be brought to the phone so you can talk to him. When you have a chance, drop by the day care unannounced so you can observe him at play. You will feel better if you see him happily involved.

       If you suspect that he’s not happy, don’t ignore the problem, even if you feel desperate about the need for child care. It takes a great deal of effort and energy to become involved in your child’s day care situation; some parents avoid or deny all problems because they don’t have the time, desire, or energy to cope. Others are afraid even to question their child about his day for fear he’ll say something negative.

       If you’re worried about your child’s adjustment to day care, you have to become involved enough to help him. Make sure the quality of his program remains high—don’t compromise. Spend as much time as possible with him when you’re home in the evenings and on weekends. Look to other parents for support and advice. Finally, reconsider your need to work outside the home or to work full-time. You and your child could benefit greatly if you were able to stay home with him as much as possible during the few short years before elementary school.

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       When a child begins day care or nursery school, she and her family face the issues of separation and independence. A four- or five-year-old will probably go off without much difficulty, but many children under three have a hard time leaving their parents. Parents can make the transition from home a little easier if they talk to their child about what will be happening and patiently reassure her.

       You can begin preparing your child several weeks before her new program starts. If she previously went with you to visit the school or center, remind her of what she saw: “Remember the blocks and puzzles you played with there?” If she’s never seen the school, describe the building, the toys, and the activities. Let her know about snacks, lunch, and naps, and reassure her that the school has bathrooms and places for her coat and other belongings. Mention the name of some-one she knows who will be in the program with her; if she doesn’t know anyone in the school; tell her there will be many other children her age there. If you know who your child’s teachers will be, tell her their names.

       If your child is under two, you won’t be able fully to prepare her for nursery school or day care because she won’t understand much of what you tell her, although you can still describe whatever you think will interest her. She will basically have to experience the new program and the separation firsthand. You and your child’s caretakers will have to be understanding and nurturing as she adjusts in the early weeks of school, and you may have to be flexible about your own schedule so you can take her home early if necessary.

       On the first day of school, before you leave home, talk to her about the separation that’s coming: “After we get to the classroom, I’ll stay for a few minutes and then say good-bye.” Tell her what time you’ll be coming back and what your driving arrangements will be. If she’ll be in a car pool, tell her who will drive. For the first few days of school you may want to do the driving yourself to help her adjust to her new situation.

       Be patient as you say good-bye to her the first few days. Many children, especially those under three years old, have a difficult time leaving their parents, particularly if the program lasts a full day. Your child may want to say good-bye several times, or she may cry. Don’t threaten her or say, “Be good and stop crying,” or, “Be a big girl.” She needs support, not pressure. You might be able to eliminate some of her anxiety by letting her bring along a favorite toy or blanket. Try arriving at school fifteen minutes early so you can spend more time with her before you go. Or give her a special little treat when she gets in the car or a “love” note or picture to carry into school with her.

      You should not try to sneak out of the school without saying good-bye, even if you think such an action might keep your child from crying. Eventually she will notice you’re gone and may become frightened and upset. Although it’s painful to see your child cry as you go, you should still say good-bye to her. You might feel better if you wait outside the classroom door, listening for a few minutes until she’s calmed down.

       As time goes by, she may continue to have trouble leaving you at the school door. Children two years old and younger don’t understand that you’ll return, no matter how often you tell them. This may make them anxious in the morning and off and on throughout the day. Consult with your child’s teachers. They may be able to help by giving your child extra comfort and reassurance, and getting her involved in activities.

       It might take your child several weeks to adjust to school or day care, and during that time you may see some changes in behavior such as bed-wetting, nightmares, decreased appetite, more frequent whining, and reluctance to go to school. Getting used to a program is more difficult for some children than others, but most children are affected in some way during the early days of a new situation. You’ll have to be patient and understanding as your child adjusts.

       If, after several months, she’s still showing behavioral changes and seems unhappy, talk to her teachers and stay to observe the program. You might even drop in unexpectedly to see how she is, and to try to find out why she isn’t enjoying herself. As you watch her, ask yourself the following questions: does she seem to have friends she enjoys? Is she one of the youngest children in the group? (If she is, she may feel less confident and accepted.) Is she getting enough attention from her teachers? If the program seems inappropriate, take her out and find a better one. But if you’re unsure, wait a bit before making your decision. Your child just might need an extra amount of understanding and time to adjust to day care or school.

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       Stay-at-home parents feel pressure to send their child to preschool since most children go to some sort of program and child care professionals generally recommend it. Parents who keep their child home until elementary school often face the disapproval of friends and relatives. People ask, “How will he learn to socialize?” “Isn’t he ready?” “How can you get anything done with him around all day?” “Aren’t you afraid he’ll miss out?” “How will he be prepared for kindergarten?”

       There are a number of good reasons why a child might not go to preschool. When there’s a new baby in the family, some parents keep their older child home so he won’t feel rejected or pushed out. The expense of nursery school deters other families, either because they can’t afford the fees or don’t think the experience is worth the cost. Some parents are unable to find a nursery school that seems appropriate for their child, and some want to be with their child full-time until elementary school begins. Finally, some parents keep their child at home because they welcome the freedom: when there are no school schedules to follow, parent and child can wake up when they want, go on outings together, and stay outdoors as long as they like.

       A child who stays out of nursery school will not be harmed socially. He’ll have chances to play with siblings, neighborhood children, and friends who attend part-time or half-day programs. His parents also can enroll him in once-a-week recreation classes and set up a visiting arrangement with other children who don’t attend nursery school.

      When a child does go to nursery school, his parents often marvel at how he changes. He seems more cooperative and knowledgeable, and they attribute his growth to the school. But Parents whose children stay at home also see these changes. Young children naturally mature and develop as they get older, and a four-year-old who stays home will have the same interest in learning and playing as a four-year-old in a preschool.

       A child who stays home will be busy and involved, especially if his parents provide an environment in which he can explore, play, read, go on outings, and create—all the things done at school. He’ll learn about his world because, like all young children, he’s curious. Preschool can be a very positive experience, but it isn’t a necessary one.

       If you decide to keep your child at home for the preschool years, you may wonder how he’ll adjust to kindergarten. As long as you prepare him by visiting the school ahead of time and talking about kindergarten activities, he is likely to do just as well as a child who attended preschool. Kindergarten is a new experience for all children, and they all go through a period of adjustment.

       During the years that your child is at home instead of in preschool, people may ask him, “Where do you go to school?” and other children will tell him about their schools. Your child, particularly if he is four or five, may wonder why he isn’t in school, and may feel somewhat alienated from his friends. Many children, however, are not affected by the questions and comments of others and confidently announce, “I don’t go to school,” or, “I learn at home.” If your child does express a desire to go to nursery school, you may want to look for a program that meets your needs as well as his, or you may decide to tell him that he’ll go to school when he’s old enough for kindergarten.

       Although the decision to keep your child home may be a difficult one, you might be surprised by unexpected support. One mother, expecting a lecture, reluctantly told her pediatrician she was not sending her child to school. The doctor shocked and delighted her by not only praising her decision, but telling her that he and his wife had kept their children home and that the experience had been very positive.

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       Every day care center and nursery school is different, and parents have to search carefully to find a good place for their child. Schools might claim (as Montessori, Waldorf, co-op, and religious schools do) that their Programs are based on familiar philosophies, but parents have to see how the philosophies are actually implemented. The personalities of staff members, the physical layouts, and the day-to-day programs are what determine a school or center’s quality. The only way for parents to make an informed choice is to observe a number of programs.

       Parents who want a program that meets three mornings a week and parents searching for a day care center open twelve hours a day will be looking for the same qualities. All parents want caring staff members, a pleasant facility, and a flexible program that will meet their child’s needs for the one to four years she will attend. The difference for parents looking at full-time day care is that their child will spend most of her waking hours at the center they choose. Therefore, the selection of a quality day care program is essential.

       As you look for child care facilities, narrow your choices to centers that are easy to get to. If you’re considering nursery schools, you’ll probably want one close to home, while you might find a day care center more convenient if it’s close to your work. Narrow your choices further by asking friends, neighbors, and coworkers for recommendations. Then visit at least two or three programs before making a decision.

       When you go to a center or school, think about the physical space. Are the rooms inviting, clean, and safe? Is there ample room to play inside and is there play equipment outside? Are there places in the classroom where your child can play quietly? Are there a variety of toys and materials within easy reach? Where will your child take naps, and where can she go if she doesn’t nap? Does the overall environment seem exciting?

       Watch the teachers and aides carefully, since they set the tone for the program. Do they seem to enjoy their jobs and relate well to each other? Do you like the way they interact with the children? Good teachers will be warm, understanding, and respectful of children. Do they seem reassuring and flexible enough to let a child follow her own interests? Are you comfortable with the way they set limits and carry out discipline in the classroom?

       Try to imagine your child in the programs you observe. How would she react? Are the teachers’ expectations appropriate for her? Would the schedule allow her flexibility? What if she wanted to continue with one activity when the teachers had scheduled a switch to another—would she be allowed quietly to finish what she was doing?

       See if the teachers pay enough attention to the children in the room. One parent saw a teacher who was so involved with a small group working on the day’s curriculum project that she ignored the rest of the class. When the teacher finally became aware of an argument in the block corner, she was too late to help a child whose building had been destroyed.

       Consider how many teachers there are at the center or school, and the makeup of the groups. Young children need a lot of attention and comfort. Older children need fewer adults, but the teacher-child ratio in all cases should seem satisfactory to you and meet local licensing standards. Are there mixed age groups in a single classroom, or are children placed with others the same age? You may prefer one arrangement over another.

       Pay particular attention to the school or center’s program. Too many are highly structured and goal-oriented, arranged with parents’ and not children’s needs in mind. Many teachers say, “Parents want academics. Parents expect projects.” But when academics are over-emphasized, children lose opportunities to play, experiment with different materials, and come up with discoveries and their own answers to problems. In an effective program, children have plenty of time to explore on their own and teachers value active play and socializing.

       Look at the children’s artwork. Most nursery schools and centers have children do one or two art projects a day. Is the work displayed at a child’s eye level? Are all the projects precut by the teacher? Do all the finished projects look alike, or are they truly products of the children’s effort and creativity?

       Finally, see if the activities are appropriate for the children. One group of two-year-olds was expected to dye Easter eggs in school, but the children were clearly incapable of following the necessary steps. Rather than drop the activity, the teachers did all the dyeing themselves.

       Teachers should build on children’s interests and abilities, not give them tasks they can’t perform. Look for a program that stresses exploration and discovery and teachers who will follow up on your child’s own interests and abilities.

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     It can be difficult for parents to find a teenage baby-sitter they feel comfortable using. When they leave their child for an afternoon or evening, they want to know that he’ll be happy and safe. Yet it’s hard to tell from a quick conversation or a few minutes’ observation whether a sitter will be responsible. The best way for parents to select a sitter is to ask for recommendations, get to know the sitter, and monitor carefully the way she performs the job.

     To find potential sitters, ask friends, neighbors, relatives, and coworkers for recommendations. You also can ask local high school teachers or counselors for suggestions. Good sources of names are sitters who may be too busy to work for you but who can pass on names of friends. Whatever your source for baby-sitters, get suggestions from people you trust. Also, as you seek referrals, keep in mind the ages of baby-sitters. Parents of infants may prefer an older teenager while parents of four- and five-year-olds may be comfortable enough with a twelve- to fourteen-year-old sitter who will keep their child entertained.

     After you’ve contacted a potential sitter, invite her to your home so you can observe her with your child. Ask questions about her activities, schoolwork, and friends. She’ll be pleased that you take an interest in her, and from her responses you’ll get to know what she’s like. Watch as she interacts with your child. Is she friendly, playful, nurturing? How does your child respond to her? One father was delighted when the girl he was interviewing spontaneously took out her keys and jiggled them in front of his whimpering eighteen-month-old, calming the child. If the sitter is young or inexperienced, you may want to meet her parents—and they may want to meet you.

     If you decide to use the sitter, have her arrive early on the day she’ll watch your child so you can give her instructions. Teenagers need strong guidance and limits, so be prepared to tell your sitter in detail what your expectations are. Describe how you want her to handle feeding, playtime, television, toilet use, and bedtime, and write down your instructions so she can refer to them later. Make it clear if you don’t want her to talk on the phone, invite her friends to your house, or take your child outside.

     Before you leave, let your sitter know how you can be reached and leave emergency phone numbers. You might want to write down a list of activities your child enjoys and another list of things to do (take out play dough, read books) if he gets silly or hard to handle. A four- or five-year-old may spend time testing a new sitter and feeling a sense of power: “This is my house, my food, my TV.” Let your child know ahead of time that you expect him to behave appropriately, and let your sitter know that it may take time for him to feel comfortable.

     If he has a difficult time separating from you, you might feel tempted to leave without warning him or saying good-bye. But if you do this, you’ll probably increase his anxiety. It’s better to tell him you’re going and have the sitter comfort him as you leave. If he’ll be asleep when you go, tell him before bedtime, “While you’re sleeping, Kim will come and baby-sit for you.” You also can take time before the baby-sitter arrives to tell your child about the fun he and she will have. If you let the sitter do special things with him—give an extra dessert, play a new game—he may be less anxious about your leaving.

      While you’re out, call home to see how things are going. Occasionally, your sitter will tell you that your child isn’t feeling well and you’ll then have to cut your evening short. This can be frustrating and at times upsetting. But it will happen less and less as your child gets older.

      Trust your instincts. If you feel that something happened while you were away, try to find out about it. If your child seems unhappy with a sitter, try to learn why. You can ask a three- to five-year-old, “What do you like about Michelle? What don’t you like?” Although you may hear some exaggerated stories, you should take him seriously when he says, “She yells too much,” or, “She tries to scare us.” If you’re unsure about a sitter, ask a neighbor or relative to come by and check next time the sitter is at your house. And if you feel that a sitter is not responsible, stop using her and look for someone else. In order to enjoy your time away from home, you have to feel good about the person watching your child

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