My Science School

Einstein too had an annus mirabilis like Newton. In 1905, Einstein published four scientific papers in the German journal Annalen der Physik. These four papers laid the foundation of modern physics by revolutionizing how the scientific community perceived fundamental concepts of space, time, mass, and energy. As all four papers were published in 1905, this year is considered Einstein’s annus mirabilis or miracle year.

The first paper introduced the revolutionary idea that light is composed of both energy and particles. The foundation for quantum physics that physical systems can behave both as waves (energy) and as particles (matter) began here.

The second paper, though without any revolutionary concepts, was important in its own right. Einstein discovered the empirical evidence behind Brownian Motion which refers to the random movement displayed by small particles that are suspended in fluids. Though many scientists had accepted this already, empirical evidence had been lacking.

The third paper which contained the special theory of relativity possibly had the most ground-breaking content among all four papers.

The last of these papers published on 21 November 1905 had the mathematical confirmation of the Special Theory of Relativity, the most famous equation: E=mc2.

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Albert Einstein is considered to be one of the most influential persons of the 20th century. His thoughts on space, time, motion and energy revealed new trajectories to the world.

Astronomers use his work till day to study everything from gravitational waves to Mercury’s orbit. His contribution also extends to the philosophy of science.

Einstein’s formula on mass - energy equivalence, E=mc2(square) has been called the world’s most famous equation. Even those unfamiliar with the underlying physics know about this equation.

In 1921 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the law of the photoelectric effect. His theory of general relativity gives an explanation of gravity while the law of photoelectric effect explains the behaviour of electrons in certain conditions.

Einstein’s theories and discoveries marked a turning point in the development of quantum theory and influenced the development of atomic energy.

The ‘theory of everything’ was a single theory under which Einstein tried to unify all the forces of the universe. He worked on this unified field theory, though unsuccessfully, till the time of his death.

Einstein’s insight and inquisitiveness made him the most influential physicist of the 20th century.

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Newton’s contributions to science are truly staggering. In a foreword to a twentieth century edition of Newtons Opticks, Albert Einstein wrote:

“Nature was to him an open book, whose letters he could read without effort… In one person, he combined the experimenter, the theorist, the mechanic and, not least, the artist in exposition. He stands before us strong, certain and alone; his joy in creation and his minute precision are evident in every word and every figure.”

Newton summarized his achievements in these words: “I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me...”

Sir Isaac Newton led an active life until his old age when age-related afflictions became a barrier. As he experienced inconsistencies due to weakness in the bladder, he was forced to limit his movements and follow dietary restrictions.

He became ill with gout in 1725 and suffered haemorrhoids the next year. In the months prior to his death, Newton was ill and bedridden. He lost consciousness on 19 March 1727 due to pain from his bladder stone and never regained consciousness. Newton passed away on 31 March 1727 at the age of 84. He was buried in London’s Westminster Abbey on April 4, to rest among the kings and queens, dukes and earls of England.

Isaac Newton’s pallbearers included two dukes, three earls and the Lord Chancellor. Voltaire described Newton’s funeral as the funeral of a king who had done well by his subjects.

In the last years of his life, Newton’s circle of friends included Prince George (later George II) and his wife Caroline, whom he visited regularly. He was successful, famous and wealthy by the time he died. Newton is said to have helped his extended family generously and was a charitable person. As he had never married, his estate went to the descendants of his stepfather, Barnabas Smith.

His papers were given to his half-niece Catherine Barton and her husband John Conduitt.

Alchemy is a proto-science which studies, among other things, the possible methods to transform base metals such as lead and copper into silver or gold. Alchemy also involves the search for the cure for diseases and a way to extend life.

Alchemy is shrouded in mystery and secrecy. Newton has been considered as a credulous alchemist by many. He had even described a recipe for the Philosopher’s Stone in one of his manuscripts. Philosopher’s Stone is said to have the ability to turn base metals into silver and gold and had magical properties and could even help humans achieve immortality.

Newton’s belief that he had discovered a blueprint for the Philosopher’s Stone was rather surprising, considering his status as a serious and empirical scientist.

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Despite his success as a scientist, Newton was at first largely inactive in the political arena. Later, he became the Member of Parliament, representing Cambridge University from 1689 to 1690. This had been the period when the Parliament enacted the Bill of Rights, which limited the power of the monarchy and laid out the rights of Parliament and individuals. However, Newton was anything but an active parliamentarian. He reportedly spoke just once and that had been to ask an usher to close a window on a chilly day!

Despite his lacklustre contributions as a parliamentarian, he became acquainted with many influential individuals including King William III and philosopher John Locke, during his time in London. Newton served a second term in the parliament from 1701 to 1702 but this time too his participation in the proceedings of Parliament was minimal.

In 1705, he was knighted by Queen Anne for his contributions to science and public service. The event was held at a lavish ceremony at Trinity College. Newton became the first scientist to be given this honour.

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Among all the duties Newton had at the Royal Mint, the most impossible one was testing the purity and accuracy of coins. The coins had to be of the correct weight and fineness, with only the least difference from each other.

The task of determining whether each coin was identical to the other, turned out to be a tedious one. However, Newton’s scientific training came in useful to tackle this job.

Newton visited the pressing plant next to his office at the Royal Mint every day. Workmen would take out a small sample of the molten metal using ladles designed for this purpose. The sample would be taken back to the warden’s laboratory where he conducted chemical experiments on the metal to verify if it met the required standards of purity.

Newton claimed that he had brought the coinage to a much greater degree of exactness than ever before. Naturally, he reacted angrily when a judgment by the jury in the Trial of the Pyx in 1710 declared that the gold coins were substandard. (The Trial of the Pyx is a procedure in which the integrity of the coinage of England was tested.)

Isaac Newton was appointed as the warden of the Royal Mint in 1696. He received the position on the recommendation of Charles Montague, a well-known politician of the time. The prestigious post was intended as a reward for Newton’s scientific achievements.

Newton took up the position at a crucial time as England was in the process of changing its silver coinage prevalent from the time of Elizabeth I. As these coins had a smooth edge, people could easily clip small amounts of silver from them and still use the same coin. Making counterfeit coins was also a common occurrence. Newton took a firm stance on counterfeiting. He cracked down on the group of thieves known as clippers who clipped off small pieces of coins, melted down the metal and extracted the silver.

Under Newton’s wardenship, auxiliary mints were set up on different parts of the country. He supervised the processing of new coins and its distribution to various banks across the country. Newton was so successful that in 1699, within 3 years of his appointment, he was made the Master of the Royal Mint.

Isaac Newton became the president of the Royal Society in 1703. The 60-year-old Newton undertook responsibilities with his characteristic determination and energy. In the preceding years the Society had a series of politicians as its presidents. They were not concerned about the Society’s aims and the weekly meetings were no longer based on the scientific interests which laid the foundation of the Society.

Once Newton took charge, he devoted his time to bring the Society back to its old grandeur. He developed a scheme and methodology for conducting its meetings. According to the scheme, weekly meetings would have to be held, where serious discussions would take place. Moreover, he also made a provision for people with good scientific reputations to give demonstrations at the meetings. This succeeded in increasing the attendance and improving the quality of the deliberations.

The Royal Society became stronger during and following the 24 years of Newton’s presidentship. He played a significant role in making the Society into the world-famous organization it is today. However, Newton is also said to have exploited his position as the president to make public his disagreements with scientists such as John Flamsteed, the astronomer.

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Newton was invited to join the Royal Society in early 1672. The Society had distinguished personalities such as Robert Boyle and Christopher Wren as its members at the time. Newton had seen the invitation to join as a great honour.

He found a rival of his rank at the Society. It was Robert Hooke, who had been a member of the Royal Society right from its start. Hooke was a brilliant and inventive man whose mind moved from discipline to discipline, making discovery after discovery.

Though Hooke was mainly interested in mechanics, he built amazing microscopes and researched the structure of the plant cell. He was also a gifted inventor who created dozens of devices ranging from an early form of the telegraph to a diving bell.

He had also ventured into the study of combustion, musical notes and the nature of light, the last of which became the bone of contention between Hooke and Newton. The conflict between the duo began with conflicting opinions about the nature of white light. Newton presented his first paper to the Royal Society in February 1672, in which he detailed his work on the nature of light and advanced his theory that white light was a composite of all the colours of the spectrum. Newton asserted that light was composed of particles.

Hooke had his own ideas about the nature of light. He believed that light travelled in waves, in contradiction to Newton’s belief. Hooke was critical of Newton’s paper.

He went on to attack Newton’s methodology and conclusions. Hooke was certainly not the only person to take a critical stand. Huygens, the great Danish scientist and a number of French Jesuits also raised objections. However, due to his work in the same field and prominence within the society, Hooke’s remarks were the most cutting.

Newton responded to the criticism by being angry and defensive. This came to be his characteristic response to any critique of his work.

The Royal Society was the leading national organization for the promotion of scientific research in Britain. It is also the oldest national scientific society in the world.

The origin of the society can be traced back to November 28, 1660, when twelve men met. They decided to set up a College for promoting ‘Physico-Mathematicall Experimentall Learning’. These men included scientist Robert Boyle, architect Christopher Wren, Bishop John Wilkins and the courtiers Sir Robert Moray and William, 2nd Viscount Brouncker.

Brouncker went on to become the first president of the Royal Society. King Charles II granted a royal charter for it as ‘The Royal Society’. Through the royal charter the society got an institutional structure- a president, treasurer, secretaries, and council. The society has always remained a voluntary organization, independent of the British state despite receiving royal patronage from the beginning.

The conduct and communication of science was revolutionized by the Society. In 1665 itself, Hooke’s Micrographia and the first issue of Philosophical Transactions were published. Philosophical Transactions is now the oldest continuously-published science journal in the world.

The Royal Society also published Isaac Newton’s Principia Mathematica, and Benjamin Franklin’s kite experiment demonstrating the electrical nature of lightning.

Newton was a mathematics professor at Trinity College, Cambridge. But he was not a successful teacher. Newton preferred to spend his time alone in the laboratory, which he built himself, or in the small garden outside his rooms.

Only a few students attended his classes and fewer still understood what he said. A secretary later commented that often, Newton ended up teaching his walls with no students in front of him!

Not even one student who studied mathematics under Newton in the thirty years of his teaching career dedicated himself to the study of mathematics.

Newton’s absent-mindedness was also well known. He would sometimes stay in bed an entire day pondering upon a particular problem. If he received visitors while he was immersed in a new idea, Newton would simply walk into another room to continue thinking; completely forgetting that somebody was awaiting him in the other room.

By the 1670s, Trinity College became a lonely place for him. He enjoyed the brotherhood of similar minds and hence, he eagerly accepted the offer to join the Royal Society.

The English version of Opticks: or A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light was published in 1704. A Latin translation of the book appeared in 1706. This is Newton’s second major book on physical science. It analyses the fundamental nature of light.

The book covers discoveries and theories concerning light and colour made by Newton in 33 years. It deals with ideas ranging from the spectrum of sunlight to the invention of the reflecting telescope. It also includes the first workable theory of the rainbow and the first colour circle in the history of colour theory. Newton also discusses various other subjects such as metabolism, blood circulation and a study of the haunting experiences of the mentally ill.

One of the major impacts of Opticks was that it overthrew the idea that ‘pure’ light (such as sunlight) is white or colourless, and it becomes coloured by mixing with darkness caused by interactions with matter. Newton showed that this assumption from the time of Aristotle and Theophrastus was wrong.

Newton also illustrated that colour is a result of the physical property of light, as each hue is refracted at a characteristic angle by a prism or lens. He also added that colour is a sensation within the mind and not an inherent property of material objects or of light itself. Considering the impact of the book on science, it is astonishing to think that it was initially published anonymously with just the initials I.N. at the end of an advertisement at the front of the book.

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Astronomer Edmond Halley persuaded Newton to expand his studies. Halley was the driving force behind the publication. He acted as a critic as well as supporter for this work.

Edmond Halley even convinced Newton to allow him to edit the Principia. Halley covered the various expenses, corrected the proofs himself, and ultimately got Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica printed in 1687.

Newton was famously reluctant to publish his works. Without Edmond Halley’s compulsion to publish Principia, Newton may have never become an outstanding figure in the history of science.

Newton would probably be known only for his mathematics and optics, and remain a relatively obscure professor in Cambridge.

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Latin for Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy) is often simply referred to as Principia. This work in three books, written by Isaac Newton in Latin was first published on 5 July 1687. In retrospect, its publication was a landmark event in the development of modern physics and astronomy.

Newton published two more editions in 1713 and 1726 after annotating and correcting his personal copy of the first edition. Principia contains the laws of motion, law of universal gravitation and a derivation of Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (Kepler originally obtained these empirically). The work also forms the foundation of classical mechanics. Principia is considered as one of the most important works in the history of science.

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