My Science School

Martin Van Buren, the eighth president of America was called Little Magician by the people. He certainly did not make a rabbit vanish, but he was a friendly, cheerful person who knew how to work with people and how to get things done.

As a young lawyer, Martin showed an active interest in politics and law. By 1827, Martin Van Buren had emerged as a principal northern leader. President Andrew Jackson appointed him as the Secretary of State.

Van Buren was chosen for the position of vice president during Jackson’s second term. He was elected as president in 1836 with Jackson’s support.

Shortly after Martin Van Buren was sworn in as president, the country was in the midst of turmoil. It was 1837; the banks all over the country started failing. Many people lost their jobs. For about five years, the United States was affected by the worst depression so far in its history.

People started blaming Van Buren for the bad times. Though he tried his best to get the country back on its feet, he failed. He finally left office in 1841 after many attempts to save the country.

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Though Andrew Jackson was once defeated by John Quincy Adams, he was still popular among the masses. He was a leader who believed that a country should be run by common citizens.

On the day Andrew Jackson took office, a newspaper wrote, “It was a proud day for the people. General Jackson is their own president.” Jackson won the election by a direct appeal to the mass of voters. His political movement is popularly known as Jacksonian Democracy.

Americans dearly accepted him as the direct representative of the common man and he was elected as the seventh president of the United States in 1829 for the first time. He was elected a second time too and remained in office till 1837.

Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement in the Carolinas in 1767. Though his education was irregular, he managed to finish a law degree and went on to become an outstanding lawyer in Tennessee. He served as a major general during the War of 1812.

Unlike many of the previous presidents, Jackson did not defer to Congress in policy-making. But he used his power of the veto and his party leadership to assume command. Some of his followers thought he was too powerful and many called him ‘King Andrew’.

Jackson is widely regarded as the maker of the modern presidency. It is ironic that Jackson once said, ‘I know what I am fit for. I can command a body of men in a rough way; but I am not fit to be president.’

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The son of the second American president went on to become the sixth president of the country. John Quincy Adams, the sixth president was the son of John Adams. If you have been reading carefully up until now, you already know about John Adams.

Like his father, John Quincy Adams was interested in public service. Right from a very young age, he got to watch the lives of politicians and diplomats from a close range. It is not surprising that he ended up being both.

Quincy Adams spent his childhood in Europe and was influenced by it. He was a young diplomat in Europe himself during the French Revolution in 1789. He later returned to France as U.S. Ambassador from 1809 until 1817.

Before becoming the president, Quincy Adams was one of the most celebrated of the American diplomats. Effectively executing the Monroe Doctrine was one among his many achievements.

During his life as a congressman, he conducted a consistent and often dramatic fight against the expansion of slavery. He served as Secretary of State while James Monroe was president and played a major role in the acquisition of Florida.

Quincy Adams contested the presidential elections after Monroe’s second term. Though Andrew Jackson got more popular votes, none of the candidates had enough electoral votes. The House of Representatives had to choose a winner from the three top candidates, and Adams was elected.

During his tenure, Quincy Adams implemented several federally funded infrastructure projects. John Quincy Adams also established a national university and engaged with the countries of Latin America.

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James Monroe was the last president from the Founding Fathers. He would have never thought of becoming the fifth president of America in the days of his youth, while joining Washington’s Army.

James Monroe grew up in Westmoreland county and was a student at a Virginia college during the early days of the American Revolution. It was James Monroe who helped Thomas Jefferson with the Louisiana Purchase while the latter served as the president. He went on to become the president in 1817, defeating Rufus King.

Monroe’s administration is regarded as calm and prosperous. It set the stage for many monumental events for the United States of America as a nation. His tenure is known as the Era of Good Feelings. The Missouri Compromise took place when Monroe was president. Missouri wanted to enter the union as a slave state, where slavery was legal. According to the treaty, this was permitted, and Missouri joined the Union.

Monroe was of the opinion that the countries of Europe must stay away from the affairs of the independent nations and colonies in North and South America. This idea came to be known as the Monroe Doctrine and remained the cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy. Monroe was re-elected as the president in 1820.

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Despite being frequently ill, James Madison was a profound thinker and an expert on British laws.

When America finally broke free from the clutches of the British, Madison knew that the new country would need a new government. He suggested that America needed a written plan so that all of its people would know the law. He also influenced the planning and authorization of the nation at the Constitutional Convention in 1787.

Madison also collaborated with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay in the publication of the Federalist Papers. The Federalist Papers were a series of 85 essays published between 1787 and 1788 about the proposed Constitution of the United States. It also talked about the nature of republican governments.

Needless to say, Madison is regarded as one of the Founding Fathers. James Madison went on to become the fourth president of the country, from 1809-1817.

During his tenure, the U.S. was caught in the war between France and Britain. When American ships began to be affected by the British attacks, Madison decided that it was time to fight back.

This kick-started what we know as ‘the war of 1812’. The war that lasted for two years was widely regarded as a victory for America. By the time Madison left office and went back to his Virginia farm, he had become a beloved and popular president.

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Thomas Jefferson was one of the Founding Fathers and the third president of the United States. He was a great thinker, architect, farmer and patriot. Historians generally praise Jefferson’s public achievements, including his advocacy of religious freedom and tolerance in Virginia.

Thomas Jefferson was born into a wealthy plantation family in 1743. Jefferson was gifted with words; he found it easier to write down his thought than to speak them. No wonder, he was entrusted with the responsibility to pen down the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration was signed by the Congressional representatives of thirteen states, including Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams, and was approved on 4 July 1776. Jefferson served as the Secretary of State under President George Washington.

Before becoming the president, Jefferson served as the vice president of the country in 1797. Jefferson made some important decisions for the country during his tenure as the president. It was Jefferson’s idea to create U.S. monetary system on a decimal system with the dollar as the base.

He bought a huge area of land from France that doubled the size of the nation. This is known as the Louisiana Purchase in history. After serving as the president for two terms, Jefferson retired to Monticello, his enormous plantation home, where he continued to write until his death.

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John Adams served as the second president of the United States of America. He was more of a political philosopher than a politician. Adams served as the vice president under George Washington. John Adams was a Harvard-educated lawyer who played an important role in the war of independence. He is one of the Founding Fathers and went on to become the first vice president of the newly independent nation.

It was Adams who worked with Thomas Jefferson on the wording of the Declaration of independence, a document declaring the U.S. to be independent of the British Crown. It is interesting to note that Adams was not formally nominated for presidentship. He became the de facto candidate with the endorsement of retiring President Washington and he won the elections defeating Thomas Jefferson.

His term began in 1797. It was Adams who established the U.S. Navy and ordered the first warships to be built. During his tenure, the war between the French and British caused great difficulties for the U.S. on the high seas. After great efforts, Adams was able to sign a peace treaty with France in 1800. Adams ran for the presidential election again in 1800. He competed against Thomas Jefferson again, but this time, the people favoured Jefferson. Adams died on 4 July, 1826.

The U.S. Presidential Election was one of the much-awaited events of 2020. After a very long poll, Joe Biden was elected the President defeating Donald Trump in November, 2020. He will assume power as the 46th President on 20 January, 2021. Biden was a popular Vice President of the United States from 2009-17 under President Barack Obama.

Born in Pennsylvania on 20 November, 1942, Biden grew up in Scranton and New Castle County. He completed his bachelor’s degree from the University of Delaware in 1965 and took a law degree from the Syracuse University in 1968.

He was elected to the U.S. Senate at the age of 29, in 1972, thus becoming the fifth youngest senator in the history of the country. Biden was re-elected to the Senate six times. He resigned in 2008 to serve as Barack Obama’s Vice President after the 2008 presidential election.

Biden played a major role as the vice president in Obama’s initiatives. He announced his presidential candidacy for the 2020 elections in April, 2019, proving all the speculations true. It was in August, 2020 that he announced his choice of U.S. Senator Kamala Harris of California as his running mate.

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As we already know, Biden served as the Vice President to Obama. Biden played an active role and served his duties with utmost efficiency. Apart from being an influential advisor to Obama, Biden was also entrusted with many notable assignments including shaping the U.S. policy for Iraq.

Biden was an integral part of the holistic development of America. During his term, he made 16 overseas trips in the Americas. This includes four trips each to Brazil and Mexico, and three each to Canada, Colombia, and Guatemala. It was Biden who launched and chaired the U.S. - Mexico High Level Economic Dialogue. This initiative improved trade, investment, and border infrastructure between the two countries.

He also worked with the governments of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras to create the Alliance for Prosperity Plan for the Northern Triangle of Central America. He also raised funds for the region.

It was Biden who led efforts to pass the United States - Russia New START treaty for the reduction of nuclear arms. He supported closer economic ties with Russia. He led the Gun Violence Task Force following the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. He also supported the NATO-led military intervention in Libya in 2011. Biden’s role was crucial in solving many budget crises as well.

Biden’s efforts and efficiency did not go unnoticed. Both Obama and Biden were re-elected in 2012. In January 2017, Obama awarded Biden the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Obama referred to him as ‘my brother’ while presenting the rarely given honour!

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No one deserves title ‘the father of the United States of America’ more than George Washington, a highly-respected hero of the American Revolution and one of the founders of the nation.

George Washington was one among the leaders who united the Thirteen Colonies and led the war for independence from Great Britain. He was also instrumental in building the framework of the government for the new United States of America upon republican principles, during the latter decades of the 18th century. He set enduring precedents for the office of president, including the title “Mr. President”.

Born in a planter family in Virginia in 1732, George Washington was raised to become a well-mannered Virginian gentleman with all the moral values of the time. He even served with the British army during the French and Indian Wars.

By 1775, the colonies were upset with the British as they had to pay huge amounts of taxes. George Washington was present at the Continental Congresses when leaders came together to discuss what could be done.

A colonial army was formed to fight the British as a result of the Continental Congresses of 1774, 1775 and 1776. George Washington was asked to take the command of the army. He took command on July 3, 1775 and the war lasted for six long years at the end of which he forced the British to surrender in Yorktown, with some help from the French allies.

In 1783, the British gave up their control over the colonies and America became a free country. Five years later, the new Constitution was approved. When the time came to elect a president to the newly formed nation - the United States of America, Washington was the man everybody trusted. George Washington served as the president for two terms from 1789 to 1797.

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How old is it?

No one really knows how old the Grand Canyon is. While it was earlier thought to be six million years old, around the time the Colorado river cut through the landscape, many believe the Canyon could date back as far as 70 million years. This thought came to the fore after a study released in the early 2010s suggested some of the rocks in the Canyon may have been eroded and exposed at the surface millions of years ago. However, the debate, on how old the Grand Canyon actually is, goes on.

Not the deepest canyon

Though it is one of the most popular gorges, and a natural wonder of the world, the Grand Canyon is not the deepest or the longest gorge. The average depth of the Canyon is 1.6 km and it stretches nearly 446 km. However, the Guinness Book of World Records states that the Yarlung Tsangpo Grand Canyon in the Himalayas is the world's longest and deepest canyon with its maximum depth reaching about 5,382 m and the canyon stretching nearly 496.3 km.

Experience different weather conditions

With an elevation spanning 2000 feet to 8000 feet, one can experience a variety of weather conditions at the Grand Canyon. With every 1000-feet loss in elevation at the Canyon, the temperature increases by 5.5 degrees Fahrenheit.

Hidden Caves

It is estimated that there are nearly 1,000 caves spread across the Grand Canyon. However, only 335 of them have been recorded and explored so far. Of the 335, only one cave, the Cave of the Domes on Horseshoe Mesa, is open to the public.

Beware the rock squirrel

The Grand Canyon is home to a large array of wildlife from the bighorn sheep and the Gila monster, to the California condor and Ridgway's rail. But the most dangerous animal at the Canyon is the rock squirrel! Every year dozens of visitors to the Canyon are bitten by these animals when they try to feed them. Hence, one can find signs around the park asking people not to feed animals.

 

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The coast of Odisha welcomes female olive ridleys in several thousands every year. It is said that the female returns to nest in the same place it was born in. Among the most important mass nesting sites in Odisha are the mouth of the Rushikulya river and the Devi river, and Gahirmatha Turtle Sanctuary. During arribada - mass nesting - female turtles arrive from the ocean to the beaches and lay an average of 100 eggs each, taking the final tally to a few lakh eggs. Though not as mass nesting sites, coastal regions of States such as Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala too host olive ridley turtles for sporadic nesting,

An unusual phenomenon

The breeding season of the olive ridley turtle is between November and May, In Rushikulya, mass nesting normally happens between February and March. However, the year 2020 turned out to be slightly unusual for two reasons - one, the nesting began only in the third week of March (delayed due to torrential rains in the region), and two day- nesting was witnessed. Olive ridley turtles usually lay their eggs only at night. Officials say that the last time day nesting happened was in 2013. Since the period coincided with the national lockdown imposed due to COVID-19, one does wonder if the day-nesting occurred due to human absence. However, experts deny there's any connection between the lockdown and the day nesting. In fact, it is said that mass nesting is influenced by factors such as tidal conditions, wind direction and lunar phase rather than human presence. That human absence did not in any way influence the turtles' nesting behaviour becomes more credible by the fact that while the 2020 season saw the arrival of more than 3.00,000 olive ridleys, in 2019. the turtles completely skipped Rushikulya, and the year before that they actually nested twice (in February and April)! But what the lockdown did do was to help authorities allow more personnel to improve care for turtles rather than towards monitoring humans who visited the beaches.

Threats

Despite only one in a thousand reaching adulthood, the olive ridley turtle is the most abundant in the world. However, it has been listed "Vulnerable" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, and its numbers are said to be declining. Accidental injury and death caused when trapped in fishing nets has been of great concern. Though Turtle Excluder Devices have helped control this to a certain extent such injuries and deaths continue. Though measures are in place to protect them, the turtles are killed for meat and their eggs are consumed. When unprotected, eggs and newborns are consumed by birds and stray animals on the beach. Among the greatest threats to the eggs is sea erosion. There have been instances of even a few lakh eggs being lost to high tide. Sea erosion destroys certain sandy stretches that the turtles use for mass nesting. When the stretches disappear, the turtles lay their eggs on sand bars formed by erosion. These sand bars - and along with them, the eggs - are washed away by high tide.

Olive ridley facts

• Olive ridley turtles get their name from the greenish colour of their skin and shell.


• They are the most abundant turtles in the world.


• They are found in warmer waters of the Southern Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans.


• They weigh up to 50 kg and are about two feet long.


• These turtles feed mostly on jellyfish, shrimp, snails, crabs, and fish and their eggs. They occasionally eat algae and seaweed as well.


• However, only one hatchling in a thousand makes it to adulthood.


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World War II. They are typically pessimistic in nature. Films in this genre veer towards themes of corruption and murder and mostly tackle the subject of post-war disillusionment. These films take a sardonic approach to the world around and contain really strong dialogues.

Characters and characteristics

Some distinct characteristics of the genre are cynical protagonists, femme fatales, low-key lighting, flashbacks and diagonal camera angles.

The genre was inspired by pulp fiction, which was quite popular in the 1930s. These novels mostly revolved around the Great Depression and dealt with themes such as corruption, danger, and mystery.

In the wake of World War II, some Hollywood studios - in an effort to draw the audience to crime dramas - explored the dark film genre, which eventually gave rise to the noir concept. In the 1940s and the 1950s, these films were highly influenced by the German expressionism, French poetic realism, and art deco style.

Examples

"The Big Sleep", directed by Howard Hawks, is one of the iconic examples of the genre. Adapted from Raymond Chandler's 1939 novel of the same name, this film features Humphrey Bogart as Philip Marlowe, a private eye, and Lauren Bacall as the heroine Vivian Rutledge. The noir film explores the themes of murder, blackmail, and deception.

Some of the other examples are 'The Maltese Falcon", "Double Indemnity", 'The Woman in the Window", "Laura", and "Touch of Evil". Despite enjoying tremendous success in the 1940s and 1950s, the lost its glory over time. However, even now, film noir remains an important discourse for critics and students of cinema.

 

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When we think of unicellular or single-celled organisms, we usually think of microorganisms that are not visible to the naked eye. We may not be wrong in thinking so because most of the unicellular organisms are extremely tiny and can be seen only through microscopes. But there are certain single-celled organisms that are visible to us, and some can grow to be even a foot long. Surprised? Come, let's find out more about one such organism.

They're macroscopic

Single-celled organisms that are visible to the naked eye are called macroscopic unicellular organisms. Specific types of amoeba, bacteria, and algae fall under this category. One such organism is Ventricaria ventricosa. Also known as bubble algae and sailors eyeball, they are considered one of the largest single-celled organisms. Earlier called Valonia ventricosa, this spherical algal species can grow to even five cm in diameter. They are found in the tropical oceans, and are seen in coral rubble.

Though they come in shades of green, in water they appear darker or silver-coloured.

Just like some such single-celled organisms, these algae have just one cell but several nuclei. Meaning, in the original cell, there is division of the nucleus, but not the division of cytoplasm (the thick fluid in the cell). The division of cytoplasm is what gives rise to more cells in multi cellular organisms. The division the nucleus helps the bubble algae grow large enough to be visible to the human eye. In addition, they are also said to have a large central vacuole - a space within a cell that does not contain cytoplasm - which could play a role in their size.

 

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The U.S. president-elect Joe Biden has declared that the U.S. will return to the Paris Agreement and vowed to reach net-zero emission by 2050. China has committed to achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2060. South Korea, New Zealand, Australia, Brazil, Iceland and scores of other countries and corporates such as Pepsico have all set net-zero goals. A new study shows that climate disaster could be curtailed within a couple of decades if net-zero emissions are reached.

So, what does net-zero mean?

Do not be confused with the word 'zero'. Net-zero emission does not necessarily mean reaching zero emission. Under a net-zero scenario, emissions will still be generated, but this emission must be removed from the atmosphere through measures such as reforestation and artificial carbon sequestering. In other words, net-zero means achieving a balance between the greenhouse gases put out into the atmosphere and those removed. The term "carbon-neutral" is sometimes used instead of net-zero, and they broadly mean the same thing. It's not just countries that can achieve net-zero emissions, even a state, city, company or a single building can also strive to achieve net-zero emissions.

However, climate activists such as Greta Thunberg are demanding for zero emissions, meaning no emissions are produced in the first place.

How can net-zero be achieved?

• By reducing the use of fossil fuels and by adopting renewable energy sources.


• By developing energy-efficient technologies. 


• By adopting massive reforestation or tree-planting measures.


• By investing in technologies such as carbon sequestration that can remove carbon from the atmosphere. Carbon sequestration is the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide underground permanently and safely.

However, no technology or quantity of trees planted could offset the emissions currently generated globally, unless every country and every household is part of this solution.

 

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