My Science School

Anthropologists want to know why things happen. For example, we know how AIDS is spreading but do we know why? Anthropologists tackle big human problems, such as overpopulation, warfare, and poverty.

Anthropological study and training provide the knowledge, skills and tools to work with people, study the past, and shape the future.

Anthropologists work in practically every environment and setting imaginable. They can be found working in large corporations such as Intel and GM or studying primates in Africa. Anthropologists work in deserts, cities, schools, even in underwater archaeological sites.

From the Greek anthropos (human) and logia (study), the word anthropology itself tells us it is the field that seeks to understand humankind, from the beginnings millions of years ago up to the present day. Anthropology considers how people's behaviors changes over time, and how people and seemingly dissimilar cultures are different and the same.

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Herpetology is the branch of zoology which deals with the study of reptiles and amphibians such as snakes, turtles, and iguanas. It deals with their behaviors, geographic ranges, physiologies, development, genetics, and more.

Herpetologists study animals in the wild, where they determine or assess potential threats from pollution, invasive species, disease, and other factors. They often inventory or estimate animal populations. Herpetologists study their behavior, development, genetics, and distributions to better understand their ecological niches, the ecosystem services they supply, and the challenges they face. They may make recommendations to policy makers on how to protect them. Since many reptiles and amphibians are considered "indicator species", their research may be used to evaluate overall changes in the environment. Herpetologists may plan and manage disease control and conservation programs. Many conduct environmental impact studies or wildlife impact studies for the government. They may share their research findings by writing journal articles or presenting at professional conferences. Some educate the public through programs and talks.

Collection managers at museums care for preserved specimens of amphibians and reptiles. They catalog, organize, and document them, and make them available to researchers. These jobs usually require a master's degree in biology or museum studies.

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Paleontology is more than just dinosaurs! A paleontologist is a scientist who studies the fossilized remains of all kinds of organisms (plants, animals, fungi, bacteria and other single-celled living things), and is interested in knowing the history of organic life on earth. Specific work will vary depending on the scope of research or discoveries, and may involve working closely with archeology teams.

A paleontologist works out the relationships between extinct plants and animals and their living relatives today. They study fossils, using them to put together pieces of history that made up the earth and life on it. Fossils are defined as any trace of a past life form, and most fossils are several thousands to several millions or billions of years old. In trying to understand extinction events of the past, they hope to apply their scientific conclusions to extinction in the modern world as environments and global climates change.

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Entomology is the study of insects.  More than one million different species of insect have been described to date. They are the most abundant group of animals in the world and live in almost every habitat. Insects have lived on earth for more than 350 million years. Entomology is crucial to our understanding of human disease, agriculture, evolution, ecology and biodiversity.

Entomologists are people who study insects, as a career, as amateurs or both.

The Royal Entomological Society supports entomology through its international scientific journals and other publications, scientific meetings and by providing a forum for disseminating research findings. The society also funds, organises and supports events and activities for anyone that wants to learn more about insects and entomology through its outreach and education programmes.

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A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid, liquid, and gaseous matter that constitutes the Earth and other terrestrial planets, as well as the processes that shape them. Geologists usually study geology, although backgrounds in physics, chemistry, biology, and other sciences are also useful.

Geologists work in the energy and mining sectors searching for natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, precious and base metals. They are also in the forefront of preventing and mitigating damage from natural hazards and disasters such as earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis and landslides. Their studies are used to warn the general public of the occurrence of these events. Geologists are also important contributors to climate change discussions.

Geologists work in a variety of settings. These include: natural resource companies, environmental consulting companies, government agencies, non-profit organizations, and universities. Many geologists do field work at least part of the time. Others spend their time in laboratories, classrooms or offices. All geologists prepare reports, do calculations and use computers.

Although a bachelor's degree is required for entry-level employment, many geologists earn master's and/or doctorate degrees. The advanced degrees provide a higher level of training, often in a geology specialty area such as paleontology, mineralogy, hydrology, or volcanology. Advanced degrees will often qualify the geologist for supervisory positions, research assignments, or teaching positions at the university level. These are some of the most sought-after jobs in the field of geology.

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RIVERS

Most rivers flow downhill from hills or mountains to the sea. They start as fast-flowing streams, which join together to create small rivers. These often cascade down steep slopes, cutting deep valleys, until they reach flatter ground. Here, regular seasonal flooding creates broad, fertile floodplains. Each river wanders across its floodplain, growing in size but flowing more slowly, until it reaches the estuary or delta where it spills into the sea.

• SOURCE

All rivers have a source. It may be a lake, a swamp, or a spring bubbling out of the ground, which feeds the main stream of the young river. In high mountains, the source may be a stream of melt water pouring from the end of a glacier.

• TRIBUTARIES

The main stream of a river is joined by other streams, called tributaries. They all add to the flow, especially after heavy rain and during the spring thaw when mountain snow melts. At such times, they turn into torrents, carrying masses of gravel downhill and flowing in “braided” (plaited) patterns. These braided streams flow down from Aoraki (Mount Cook), New Zealand, to join the Hopkins River.

• UPPER COURSE

The upland part of a river is known as its upper course. It is usually fast-flowing, with a rocky bed, rapids, and even waterfalls. Here the Churun River cascades over the rim of the flat-topped Auyantepui Mountain in Venezuela, South America, at Angel Falls – the highest waterfall on Earth, at 979 m (3,212 ft).

• VALLEYS AND GORGES

As a river flows down from its upper course, the water usually erodes a winding V-shaped valley through the land. Some rivers pass through steep-sided gorges, like Tiger Leaping Gorge on the River Yangtze in China. Gorges are often created by the collapse of limestone cave systems that once concealed underground rivers.

• LOWER COURSE

When rivers reach the lowlands they flow more slowly, but carry more water. If they are not controlled they tend to flood each year, spilling over their banks and swamping the landscape. The floodwater leaves layers of fine silt, which build up to form a floodplain of deep, fertile soil. This makes excellent farmland. Here the Willamette River flows across its floodplain in Oregon, USA.

• MEANDERS

As it flows around a bend, river water cuts away the bank on the outside of the bend and drops sand and mud on the inside. This makes the bend more pronounced, so over time its winding course may become a series of exaggerated loops, or meanders. Sometimes a loop is cut off to become an “ox-bow lake”, seen here as the River Amazon flows through rainforest in Peru, South America.

• ESTUARIES AND DELTAS

At the coast, fresh river water meets the salt water that pushes upriver at high tide. As a result, the river drops mud particles, building up the mudflats of an estuary. If the river flow is more powerful than the flow of the tide, the flats extend out from the shore to form a wide flat area with many outlet channels, known as a delta. This view from space shows the delta of the River Niger as it meets the sea in Nigeria.

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CAVES

When rock is worn away by coastal erosion or rainwater, weak areas tend to collapse while the surrounding stronger rock survives. This creates cave systems, which may extend for many kilometres in limestone country, and contain huge caverns and underground rivers. Flowing water beneath glaciers can also erode caves in the ice. In places like Hawaii, erupting volcanoes may create lava tubes – tunnels that once contained rivers of red-hot molten rock.

LIMESTONE CAVES

Rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide from the air, turning it into weak carbonic acid. In limestone country, the acidified rainwater drains into the rock and dissolves it, creating chains of potholes and caverns. Where water containing dissolved rock drips from cave ceilings, it leaves stony deposits that build up into hanging stalactites, and stalagmites that grow up from the cave floor.

UNDERGROUND WATER

The water that creates limestone caves flows through the cave systems as underground streams and even rivers. In wet weather these can fill the caves, eroding them into fantastic shapes that are revealed as the water level drops. In some limestone regions, such as the Yucatan in Mexico, there is no surface water at all because all the rivers flow underground. In places they are open to the sky, forming beautiful natural wells called cenotes.

CRYSTALS

Water dripping through cave systems contains dissolved minerals, such as calcite and gypsum. If the water evaporates or changes its chemical nature slightly, the minerals may become solid again, forming crystals with glittering, faceted, jewel-like shapes.

COASTAL CAVE

On exposed rocky coasts, pounding waves force water into cracks in the rock at such high pressure that they blow the rock apart. This cuts away the rock at water level. Often the rock above collapses to form a sheer cliff, but if the waves cut into a weaker seam they can create deep caves and even rock arches.

GLACIER CAVE

Near the end of a glacier, melting ice creates streams of melt water that often drain down through crevasses to form vertical sinkholes. When the water reaches the bottom of the glacier, it flows between the ice and rock to erode tunnels and caves in the ancient glacier ice. At times when the melting rate is high these can fill with water, which pours through the ice in a torrent before finally emerging at the glacier tip or snout. In midwinter, however, these glacier caves may be safe to explore.

ICE CAVE

In some mountain regions, the air inside limestone caves can be so cold that water seeping into the cave immediately freezes. This creates glassy icicles and frozen cascades. The temperature is critical to the formation of these ice caves, so they are quite rare. If the rock around the cave is too cold, water freezes solid before it can enter the cave. If the cave is too warm, all the ice melts and the water drains away through the cave floor.

LAVA TUBE

Now cold and empty, this cave was once filled with a torrent of red-hot lava erupting from a Hawaiian volcano. The lava from such volcanoes is so hot and liquid that it flows like water. As it pours downhill, the top of the flow cools and may become solid, forming the roof of a lava tube. This keeps the heat in and allows the lava inside to keep flowing. When the eruption stops, the lava may flow out to leave a long cave.

CALCITE BARRIERS

Water flowing through the limestone cave of Akiyoshi-do in Japan is saturated with dissolved calcium carbonate, or calcite. Where the water flows over the sloping cave floor, calcite has crystallized to form a series of barriers. The water overflows these in a gentle cascade that falls from one pool to the next.

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WEATHER

Driven by the heat of the Sun, circulating currents of air swirl through the lower atmosphere, creating the winds that carry clouds, rain, and snow from the oceans over the land. Without these weather systems the continents would be barren deserts, where life would be impossible. Sometimes, however, the weather can be so violent that it causes destruction on a terrifying scale.

• PREDICTING WEATHER

Satellite images like this view of a hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico can help meteorologists predict the weather. Forecasters also gather data on wind, temperature, air pressure, and other variables, and feed them into computers that are programmed with Mathematical models of the atmosphere. The computers use the new data to predict how the atmosphere may react, and so produce a weather forecast.

• HURRICANES

The most devastating weather occurs over tropical oceans, where intense heat creates huge storm clouds that revolve around zones of very low air pressure. Winds spiral into the centre at 300 km/h (185 mph) or more, heaping ocean water into “storm surges” that can drown coastal cities. Hurricanes that form over the Pacific Ocean are called typhoons.

• ICE STORMS

Freezing winter weather is normal in many regions, but freak conditions can sometimes cause unusually destructive ice storms. If moist air is swept over a very cold region, falling rain may freeze where it lands to form thick ice. This can bring down power lines, paralyze rail networks, and turn roads into death traps.

• FLOODS

Heavy rain can swell rivers until they overflow their banks, flooding nearby low-lying land. The water may rise slowly, but it can also surge down valleys in sudden “flash floods” that sweep everything before them. Either way the flood water can wreck homes and even swamp cities.

• HAILSTONES

Big thunderclouds contain updrafts that carry raindrops to heights where they freeze. The pellets of ice fall through the cloud, but are carried up again so more ice freezes onto them. This can happen many times, building up hailstones that can be bigger than golf balls.

• THUNDERSTORMS

Hot sunshine causes water to evaporate and rise into the air, where it cools and forms clouds. Some clouds build up to immense heights of 15 km (9 miles) or more. They contain a huge weight of water that is eventually released in dramatic thunderstorms of torrential rain.

• TORNADOES

Thunderclouds are built up by rising warm, moist air that spirals up into the cloud. Sometimes this can develop into a tight, swirling vortex of rising air, called a tornado. Wind speeds inside the vortex can exceed 500 km/h (310 mph), and the powerful updraft can easily rip the roof off a house.

• LIGHTNING

Ice crystals tossed around inside a thundercloud can charge the cloud with electricity like a giant battery. Eventually the charge is released as a colossal spark of lightning, which heats the air along its path to about 30,000°C (50,000°F) in a split second.

EROSION

Landscapes are under constant attack from wind, rain, ice, searing heat, oceanic waves, and flowing water loaded with rock fragments. These forces gnaw away at even the hardest rocks, in the processes known as erosion and weathering. Over time they can flatten the highest mountain ranges, carrying the rocky debris away as gravel, sand, and silt. This is deposited in the lowlands or in the sea – where, eventually, it may form new rocks.

• SAND-BLASTING

In deserts, the wind picks up grains of sand and hurls them against bare rock, scouring the surface and widening any cracks. Deep beds of sandstone, like these in North America, may be worn into spectacular wave-like shapes, revealing layers of rock laid down over millions of years.

• WEATHERED GRANITE

Granite is an extremely hard, crystalline rock, but it can still be broken down by erosion. It is formed deep underground, and when exposed to the air the change of pressure makes the outside layers flake away in a process called exfoliation. It can also be attacked by the acids in rainwater, and scoured by ice.

• CLIFFS AND STACKS

Waves crashing against coastal cliffs can cut them away at a dramatic rate. The softer rock gives way first, often leaving headlands and isolated stacks of harder rock. These stacks off the Southern coast of Australia near Melbourne are known as the Twelve Apostles.

• MESAS AND BUTTES

In arid terrain, occasional flash floods cut down through weak points in the rock to form valleys. These get wider and wider, carrying away the softer rock so the harder layers collapse. Eventually all that remains are sheer- sided mesas and smaller buttes, each protected by a cap of hard rock.

• KARST TERRAIN

Rainwater is slightly acid, and this enables it to dissolve limestone. The result can be a landscape called karst, with heavily weathered bare rock riddled with caves. In tropical areas the rock is often eroded into spectacular pinnacles.

• RIVER EROSION

Rivers cut V-shaped valleys and steep-sided gorges, especially where fast-flowing water carries a lot of rocky debris. The most dramatic gorges form where the land has been slowly uplifted by titanic earth movements, forcing the river to cut deeper and deeper into the landscape.

• SLOT CANYON

Sandy water pours off high mesas during rare, but torrential desert rainstorms. It funnels through cracks in the rock at the edges of the mesas, eroding them into deep, winding slot canyons. Unlike valleys, these are often broader at the bottom than at the top.

• VANISHED GLACIERS

In mountains and in uplands affected by the last ice age, huge glaciers grinding along the courses of former rivers scoured them out to form deep U-shaped valleys. Where the glaciers have melted, the valleys remain, often with small rivers flowing down them.

ROCKS AND MINERALS

Rocks are mixtures of natural chemical compounds called minerals, which form crystals with distinctive shapes. There are three main types of rock. Igneous rock is formed when molten rock cools and hardens, a metamorphic rock is one that has been changed by heat or pressure, and sedimentary rock is generally made from fragments of rock cemented together.

1. Slate: This dark rock is created when sedimentary shale is put under intense pressure. It forms thin sheets that can be cut into squares and used for roofing.
2. Cockscomb barite: This whitish mineral is often found in veins running through rocks. Its crystals form clusters that can resemble cockscombs (roosters’ head crests).
3. Schist: Like slate, schist is created by pressure and heat, which transforms a soft sedimentary rock into a very much harder metamorphic rock.
4. Chalk: A type of limestone, chalk is built up from the remains of tiny marine organisms, which sank to the bottom of a tropical sea during the age of dinosaurs.
5. Marble: Hard and usually pale, marble is a metamorphic form of limestone. It can be carved and polished into statues, and decorative slabs are used in architecture.
6. Calcite: The main mineral in limestone and marble, calcite forms the stalactites and stalagmites seen in limestone caves.
7. Limestone: All limestones are made of chalky minerals, particularly calcite. They are easily dissolved by rainwater, creating extensive cave systems.
8. Halite: Formed by the evaporation of salt lakes, halite is rock salt - the mineral that we use to flavour our food.
9. Biotite: Dark brown biotite is a type of mica, a mineral found in most granites and schists. Its plate-like crystals resemble thin, flaky sheets of hard plastic.
10. Eclogite: A dense, heavy metamorphic rock formed deep beneath Earth’s surface, eclogite contains bright green pyroxene and glittering red garnet minerals.
11. Tremolite: Thin, transparent, fibrous-looking crystals of tremolite form from limestones that have been subjected to intense heat deep underground.
12. Beryl: This very hard mineral forms transparent, often greenish crystals that can be cut to create emeralds and aquamarines.
13. Granite: One of the main rocks that form continents, granite results from molten rock cooling slowly deep underground to form big quartz, feldspar, and mica crystals.
14. Breccia: This sedimentary rock is made of broken, sharp-edged rock fragments cemented together by finer particles.
15. Obsidian: Also known as volcanic glass, this shiny black or dark green rock is formed when molten lava cools too quickly to form crystals.
16. Gabbro: This is a coarse, dark, iron-rich, crystalline rock that makes up much of the deep ocean floor.
17. Pumice: Gas erupting from volcanoes often forms bubbles inside cooling lava. This can then form pumice, which has so many gas bubbles that it floats on water.
18. Corundum: This dull-looking stone is a type of corundum, the hardest mineral after diamond. Its crystals are used to make rubies and sapphires.
19. Albite: A pale, sodium-rich form of feldspar, albite is a common ingredient of granite, visible as big, blocky crystals that glint in the sunshine.
20. Graphite: Made of pure carbon – like diamond – graphite is a soft, metallic mineral that leaves a dark streak. It is used to make the “lead” in pencils.
21. Basalt: Heavy, dark basalt is the fine-grained form of gabbro, created when iron-rich lava from oceanic volcanoes cools quickly, often underwater.
22. Sandstone: Sand cemented together by other minerals forms sandstone. This red sandstone was once a desert dune.
23. Pyrite: Known as “fool’s gold”, this yellow metallic mineral is actually made of iron and sulfur. It often forms big cubic crystals like the ones seen here.
24. Conglomerate: Very like breccia, this rock is a solid, cemented mass of rounded pebbles, like those found on riverbeds and lake shores.

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??TALS

Metals are minerals with a closely packed atomic structure, which makes them excellent conductors of electricity and heat. Most are also strong, workable materials, ideal for making a huge range of artefacts. Pure metals are elements, with only one type of atom in their chemical structure. In nature, many are mixed with rocks, or combined with other elements to form chemical compounds. These ores must be mined and processed to extract the pure metals.

LEAD

Very dense and heavy, lead is a dark, soft metal with a low melting point, which makes it easy to shape. It is widely used in lead-acid car batteries, but also for heavy weights and roofing. The main lead ore is galena, a compound of lead and sulfur that forms big crystals.

SILVER

One of the most prized metals, silver occurs in pure “native” form in volcanic rocks. It is very shiny when polished, but soon tarnishes. Since it is quite soft, it is often mixed with other metals to make harder alloys such as sterling silver.

PLATINUM

A beautiful, very heavy metal, platinum is often used in jewellery because, like gold, it never tarnishes. It is tougher than gold, and rarer, so it is more precious. It is sometimes found as nuggets of pure metal.

GOLD

Easily worked, always shiny, and the only metal that is always found in pure form, gold has been used to make precious objects for thousands of years. It is also used to make electrical contacts that do not degrade by tarnishing.

COPPER

Copper is a soft metal, often alloyed with zinc to make brass, or with tin to form bronze – both much harder. A good conductor, it is widely used for electric wire. Its main ore is chalcopyrite, a compound of copper, iron, and sulfur.

TITANIUM

Light yet very strong, titanium is often combined with other metals to make lightweight alloys used in aircraft, spacecraft, and the pressure - proof capsules of deep-sea submersibles. One of its main ores is rutile, a compound of titanium and oxygen.

ALUMINIUM

Abundant and resistant to corrosion, lightweight aluminium is widely used for foil, cans, and in aircraft. Its ore, bauxite, is a rock that contains many aluminium compounds.

NICKEL

Rarely used on its own, nickel is often alloyed with iron to make stainless steel. This is used for all kinds of applications, from knives and forks to replacement hip joints. Nickel is also alloyed with silver to make coins.

MERCURY

The only metal that is liquid at room temperature, mercury is most familiar as the silvery contents of a medical thermometer. Its ore, cinnabar, is a colourful compound of mercury and sulfur found near volcanoes.

IRON

The most useful of all metals, iron is strong, abundant, and easy to work with, especially when refined into various types of steel. Its main ore is hematite, an iron oxide – the same thing as rust.

ZINC

Zinc is a white metal that is alloyed with copper to make brass. Its main use, however, is plating or “galvanizing” steel to make it rust- proof. Its main ore is sphalerite, a sparkling mineral that is a compound of zinc, iron, and sulfur.

TIN

Well known for its use in tin cans – which are actually tin-plated steel – tin is widely used in electronic components because of its high electrical conductivity. It is also alloyed with lead to make the solder used to assemble electronic circuits.

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FOSSILS

The remains, impressions, or traces of organisms (such as plants and animals) that have been preserved in the rocks are known as fossils. The process of fossilization generally takes millions of years, and as special circumstances are needed for fossils to form, only a tiny proportion of Earth’s organisms have been fossilized. It is not always easy to date fossils absolutely, so the palaeontologists who find, analyze, and identify fossils usually assign them to named eras and periods. These cover the major phases in the long history of life on Earth.

PALAEOZOIC ERA (ANCIENT LIFE)

Life began in the Precambrian era, more than 3.5 billion years ago, but for most of that time life was restricted to single-celled organisms like bacteria. The start of the Palaeozoic era 540 million years ago saw an explosion of multicellular life, such as marine arthropods, molluscs, and primitive relatives of fish.

MESOZOIC ERA (MIDDLE LIFE)

Beginning 252 million years ago, this was the age of the dinosaurs, when giant reptiles stalked the land, pterosaurs swooped through the skies, and marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs swam alongside squid-like ammonites. Flowering plants and small mammals also appeared on land. The era ended with a mass extinction 66 million years ago.

CENOZOIC ERA (RECENT LIFE)

Non-bird dinosaur fossils do not appear in rock formed less than 66 million years ago in the Cenozoic era, showing that they had died out by that time. Yet mammal fossils become more varied, and include early relatives of humans, which date back to 6-7 million years ago. The first true humans appeared about a million years later.

PALAEONTOLOGY

The word “palaeontology” means the study of ancient life, preserved as fossils. But palaeontologists also study non-bony life forms such as molluscs, plants, and even bacteria. Their work involves carefully removing, cleaning, and preserving the fossils, as well as identifying them and recording their features. Special tools ranging from hammers to medical scanners help them prepare and interpret their finds.

FOSSILIZATION

Normally only the hard parts of living things, such as shells and bones, survive as fossils. Over millions of years these become impregnated with minerals, so they become stony. Often the original shell or bones disappear, leaving a mould later filled by another mineral. Rarely, soft body parts such as feathers may leave detailed impressions in fine-grained rock.

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EARTHQUAKES

The vast rocky plates of Earth’s crust are always moving. Where the plates meet, the movement causes earthquakes. Frequent slight movement just causes tremors (shaking), but often the rocks on each side of a plate boundary lock together. The strain builds up, distorting the rocks until the locked section gives way. The Rock Springs back, often shifting several metres and the shock of this can cause a catastrophic earthquake.

CHILE 1960

The biggest earthquake ever recorded struck Chile in 1960. It reached 9.5 on the Richter scale, which was devised in 1935 by American scientist Charles Richter as a way of measuring earthquakes using instruments called seismographs.

ALASKA 1964

On 27 March 1964, the Pacific Ocean floor slid 20 m (66 ft) beneath Alaska in a few minutes, causing a colossal earthquake. So few people live in this remote region, however, that only 125 lost their lives.

SAN FRANCISCO 1906

The San Andreas Fault in California, USA, marks where the Pacific plate is sliding past North America. San Francisco is built on the fault line, and in 1906 the city was almost destroyed when the fault slipped 6 m (20 ft) and triggered disastrous fires.

MEXICO CITY 1985

Mexico’s capital city is built on the dried-out clay bed of an ancient lake. The earthquake that hit the city in 1985 made the clay shakes like jelly, making the shock waves six times as destructive. More than 400 multistorey buildings in the city were shaken to the ground, and at least 9,000 people died.

???? 1995

Japan was created by intense earth movements in the western Pacific, and it has more earthquakes than almost anywhere else. In 1995, an earthquake wrecked the city of Kobe, destroying this elevated highway and killing 6,433 people.

TSUNAMI 2004

The Asian tsunami that killed more than 283,000 in 2004 was caused by an earthquake on the ocean floor off Sumatra. The shock sent huge waves racing across the Indian Ocean, devastating communities all around its shores. The city of Banda Aceh, Sumatra, Indonesia, as it was in April 2004

INDONESIA 2006

In 2006, a serious earthquake struck the Indonesian island of Java, wrecking up to 135,000 houses and killing at least 5,780 people. It also damaged the ancient Hindu temple of Prambanan, a World Heritage Site, but did not destroy it.

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MOUNTAINS

The world’s mountains were raised by the titanic forces that keep the plates of Earth’s crust moving. Where the plates grind together, the edges of continents are forced up into high, folded ridges, like the Andes Mountains in South America. Hot rock deep beneath the surface may erupt through cracks in the folded rock to form volcanoes. These also erupt where the crust is being torn apart, and over “hotspots” deep within Earth. The landscape below has been created from images of the highest peaks on each continent, and one that rises from the depths of the Pacific Ocean.

• MOUNT EVEREST

The world’s highest peak, Everest lies 8,850 m (29,035 ft) above sea level. It is part of the Himalayas, a range of Fold Mountains created by the collision of India with Asia

50 million years ago. India is still moving north, so the Himalayas are still rising.

• MOUNT ACONCAGUA

The Pacific Ocean floor is plunging beneath South America, rucking up its western edge to form the rugged, earthquake-prone mountains of the Andes. Mount Aconcagua is the highest peak, at 6,959 m (22,834 ft).

• MOUNT MCKINLEY

Rising 6,194 m (20,321 ft) above sea level, Mount McKinley in Alaska is the highest peak of the North American Western Cordillera. Its isolation and bulk make it one of the world’s most spectacular mountains.

• MOUNT KILIMANJARO

The highest mountain in Africa, Kilimanjaro is actually a colossal volcano with three volcanic cones. The highest peak on the tallest cone, Kibo, rises 5,895 m (19,340 ft) above sea level. The other volcanic cones are Mawenzi and Shira.

• MAUNA KEA

The highest point on Hawaii is the top of a huge volcano that rises 10,000 m (33,000 ft) from the Pacific Ocean floor. So although its peak is only 4,205 m (13,796 feet) above sea level, it is the biggest mountain on Earth.

• VINSON MASSIF

The most remote mountains on Earth lie on the frozen continent of Antarctica. Overlooking the vast mass of the Ronne Ice Shelf, Vinson Massif in the Ellsworth range is the highest point at 4,897 m (16,067 ft).

• MONT BLANC

The folded ridges of the European Alps have been raised by the northward movement of Africa. Mont Blanc is the highest peak at 4,808 m (15,774 ft), but since its summit is a dome of ice its height varies from year to year.

• AORAKI (MOUNT COOK)

The highest peak in New Zealand, Aoraki’s name means “cloud piercer” in the native Maori language. The mountain is also known as Mount Cook. Now 2,744 m (12,284 ft) high, Aoraki was 10 m (33 ft) higher before a landslide in 1991.

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OCEANS

The oceans cover more than two-thirds of the surface of Earth, with an average depth of 3.8 km (2.4 miles), but they are not just huge pools of salt water. The ocean floors are where the great plates of Earth’s crust are splitting apart or grinding together, creating long, high ridges and deep trenches dotted with volcanoes. As a result of this, the oceans are changing their size and shape all the time.

PACIFIC ??EAN

As big as all other oceans put together, the Pacific is shrinking as the edges of its floor slip into deep ocean trenches like the Mariana Trench. The East Pacific Rise, however, is the most active mid-ocean ridge, spreading at up to 22 cm (8.5 in) a year.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

The Atlantic formed when North and South America split from Europe and Africa and gradually moved west. The ocean is still growing as new ocean floor is created at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The ridge breaks the surface in the north to form Iceland, with its volcanoes and geysers.

ARCTIC OCEAN

Most of the Arctic Ocean is covered by thick floating ice in winter. A lot of this melts in spring, allowing sunlight to reach the cold waters and fuel the growth of ocean life. The sea near the North Pole stays frozen in summer, but the area covered by ice is shrinking every year because of global warming.

INDIAN OCEAN

This mainly tropical ocean is notorious for the tsunami that swept across it from Sumatra in 2004. It had a serious impact on nearby coasts and low-lying coral islands like the Maldives, which crown the peaks of an underwater mountain ridge extending south from India.

SOUTHERN OCEAN

With no obvious northern boundaries, the Southern Ocean forms a ring of cold, stormy water around Antarctica. Ice covers a vast area in winter, and the giant icebergs that break off Antarctic glaciers and ice shelves sometimes drift well north.

Picture Credit : Google