My Science School

Battle tanks, debit/credit cards headphones, bionic parts……… many of the machines and gadgets we use today were predicted by sci-fi authors long ago. Let's look at a few of them that have become a reality

Debit/Credit Cards

Edward Bellamy's 1888 novel ‘Looking Backward’ was a huge success in its day, but it is best remembered for introducing the concept of ‘universal credit’. Citizens of his future utopia carry a card that allows them to spend 'credit’ from a central bank on goods and services without paper money changing hands.

Battle tanks

One of the best-known science fiction writers of the 20th century was H.G. Wells. In his 1903 story ‘The Land Ironclads’, published in the ‘Strand’ magazine, Wells described war machines that were uncannily similar to the modern tank They were approximately 100 feet long and rolled on eight pairs of wheels, each of which had its own independent turning axle. A conning tower in the top let the captain survey the scene. The first battle tanks were deployed on the battlefield a mere 13 years later, during the Battle of the Somme in World War I, and have been an integral part of every country's armed forces ever since.

In ‘When the Sleeper Wakes’ (1899), Wells describes automatic motion-sensing doors which saw reality 60 years later.

Earbud headphones

When Ray Bradbury published his classic ‘Fahrenheit’ 451 in 1953, portable audio players were a reality. However, headphones were massive and ugly-looking. That's why his description of 'seashells’ and thimble radios that brought an electronic ocean of sound, of music and talk is so amazing. He exactly describes the earbud headphone and Bluetooth, which didn't come into popular use till 2000!

Video chat

The first demonstration of video conferencing came at the 1964 New York World's Fair, where AT&T wowed crowds with its 'picturephone’. The technology has come a long way since then, but the first description of video phones came in Hugo Gernsback's serial tale Ralph 124c 41+ in Modern Electrics magazine in 1911. In it, he described a device called the ‘telephot’ that let people see each other while speaking long distance.

Internet glasses

The protagonist in Charles Stross' 2005 book Accelerando, carries his data and his memories in a pair of glasses connected to the Internet. In 2013, Google came out with a wearable computer called Google Glass fitted to spectacles frames. Wearers could access the Internet using voice commands.

All in one novel

Stand on Zanzibar, a 1968 dystopian* novel by John Brunner which won a number of sci-fi book awards, makes several technological and political predictions. These include laser printers, satellite TV, electric cars and on-demand video broadcasts.

Bionic man

Martin Caidin's 1972 book ‘Cyborg’ is the story of astronaut-turned-test pilot Steve Austin who is severely injured in a plane crash. The government engages a doctor who is researching bionics or the replacement of human body parts with mechanical prosthetics that work almost as well as the original. Cochlear implants for the deaf and artificial hearts are successful modern applications of bionics.

*dystopian-pessimistic description of a society that breaks down. Its opposite is 'utopian’.

Picture Credit : Google

1. Plant a garden:

It will help you learn about botany and the science of plant growth. You can begin by planting a vegetable or flower sapling or sowing some seeds.

2. Build a simple machine:

Use household items to create a lever, pulley, or other simple machine and demonstrate how they work.

3. Make slime:

Learn about the science of polymers by making slime together in class.

4. Conduct a science experiment:

Choose a simple science experiment, such as growing crystals or making a balloon rocket. Take help from your teachers to conduct it and understand the results.

5. Create a nature Scavenger hunt:

Explore the natural world by creating a scavenger hunt that highlights different plants, animals, and insects.

6. Visit a science museum:

 Take a trip to a science museum (if there is one in your city or town) or planetarium to learn about a wide range of topics.

7. Conduct a star gazing session:

Discover more about astronomy by conducting a star gazing session on a clear night with your friends.

8. Experiment with magnets

Use magnets to explore the concepts of magnetism and electric currents.

9. Make a tornado in a bottle:

Demonstrate the science of air pressure and tornadoes by making a tornado in a bottle. It's simple, look it up online and do it.

10. Create a weather station:

Explore the science of meteorology by creating a simple weather station to measure temperature, precipitation, and wind speed.

Picture Credit : Google 

The heat and energy from the sun is what drives life on Earth. That said, humanity is now collectively responsible for so much greenhouse gases that Earth's atmosphere now traps more and more of the sun's energy. This has led to a steady increase in the planet's temperature, and global warming and climate change are causes for concern.

One suggested strategy to reverse this trend is to try and intercept a small fraction of sunlight before it reaches Earth. Scientists, for decades, have considered the possibility of using screens, objects or dust particles to block 1-2% of the sun's radiation and thus mitigate the effects of global warming.

Dust to block sunlight

A study led by the University of Utah explored the idea of using dust to block a bit of sunlight. Different properties of dust particles, quantities of dust and the orbits that would work best for shading Earth were studied. The results were published on February 8, 2023 in the journal PLOS Climate.

Launching dust from Earth to a station at the Lagrange Point between Earth and the sun (L1) would prove to be most effective. The prohibitive costs and efforts involved here, however, might necessitate an alternative, which is to launch lunar dust from the moon.

These two scenarios were arrived at after studying a shield's overall effectiveness, which depends on its ability to sustain an orbit that casts a shadow on Earth. In computer simulations, a space platform was placed at the L1 Lagrange Point (point between Earth and the sun where gravitational forces are balanced) and test particles were shot along the L1 orbit.

While a precise launch was able to create an effective shield for a while, the dust would be blown off by solar winds, radiation, and gravity within the solar system. This would mean that such a system would require an endless supply of dust to blast from L1, making the cost and effort involved astronomical.

Moondust might work

 The second scenario of shooting moondust towards the sun might prove to be more realistic as the inherent properties of lunar dust allow it to work as a sun shield. After studying simulations of lunar dust scattered along different courses, an ideal trajectory that aimed towards L1 was realised.

The authors were clear in stating that their study only looks at the possible impact of such a strategy and do not evaluate the logical feasibility of these methods. If it works, this could be an option in the fight against climate change as it would allow us to buy more time.

Picture Credit : Google 

When we think of very fast land animals, the first one that comes to our mind is perhaps the cheetah. Why not? It is the fastest land animal! Do you know which one is the second fastest? The pronghorn. And, the theory behind how it developed such. speed is fascinating. Let's find out more about the animal and its sprinting capacity.

A hoofed mammal, the pronghorn is native to North America, and does not have any close relative anywhere in the world. Healthy populations of the animals exist in their range and are listed under 'Least Concern' in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. Though it looks a lot like an antelope, the herbivore belongs to its own taxonomic family called Antilocapridae. Pronghorns get their name from the forward-facing projection - the prong on their horns. Interestingly, their ‘horns’ exhibit characteristics of both a horn and an antler. The sheath of its horn is made of keratin, the substance horns are made of. But, these horns are forked and shed every year-just like antlers are! While much can be written about what else is unusual about the pronghorn, its most unique characteristic is its speed.

Running at more than 80 kmph, the pronghorn is the fastest land mammal in its entire natural range- from Canada through the US to Mexico in one aspect, it even gets better than the African cheetah-it can maintain a fast speed for a longer period of time than those carnivores. But the pronghom has no natural predator to match this speed, and so scientists had been stumped by the need for this speed. This is where the science of evolution comes in.

According to a study published recently, during the Ice Age, North America was home to several mammals that no longer exist today. Some of them are well-known today - woolly mammoths, giant sloths, and saber-toothed cats. There were lesser-known ones too, such as ‘Miracinongs’ a cheetah-like cat. The skeletal remains of ‘Miracinonyx’ show that “this now-extinct cat shares the morphological characteristics that indicate high speed capabilities with its African counterpart, the cheetah (Acinony)”. It is a close relative of the puma and the African cheetah. Both puma and ‘Miracinonyx’ are native to North America. Results provide support to "the hypothesis that ‘Miracinonyx’ preyed upon Antilocapra, but not exclusively”. Though it is not seen as conclusive evidence and more study is required, scientists say this "may provide an explanation for why pronghorns are so fast. Maybe they were chased by cheetahs after all".

Picture Crdit : Google 

When we think of very fast land animals, the first one that comes to our mind is perhaps the cheetah. Why not? It is the fastest land animal! Do you know which one is the second fastest? The pronghorn. And, the theory behind how it developed such. speed is fascinating. Let's find out more about the animal and its sprinting capacity.

A hoofed mammal, the pronghorn is native to North America, and does not have any close relative anywhere in the world. Healthy populations of the animals exist in their range and are listed under 'Least Concern' in the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of Threatened Species. Though it looks a lot like an antelope, the herbivore belongs to its own taxonomic family called Antilocapridae. Pronghorns get their name from the forward-facing projection - the prong on their horns. Interestingly, their ‘horns’ exhibit characteristics of both a horn and an antler. The sheath of its horn is made of keratin, the substance horns are made of. But, these horns are forked and shed every year-just like antlers are! While much can be written about what else is unusual about the pronghorn, its most unique characteristic is its speed.

Running at more than 80 kmph, the pronghorn is the fastest land mammal in its entire natural range- from Canada through the US to Mexico in one aspect, it even gets better than the African cheetah-it can maintain a fast speed for a longer period of time than those carnivores. But the pronghom has no natural predator to match this speed, and so scientists had been stumped by the need for this speed. This is where the science of evolution comes in.

According to a study published recently, during the Ice Age, North America was home to several mammals that no longer exist today. Some of them are well-known today - woolly mammoths, giant sloths, and saber-toothed cats. There were lesser-known ones too, such as ‘Miracinongs’ a cheetah-like cat. The skeletal remains of ‘Miracinonyx’ show that “this now-extinct cat shares the morphological characteristics that indicate high speed capabilities with its African counterpart, the cheetah (Acinony)”. It is a close relative of the puma and the African cheetah. Both puma and ‘Miracinonyx’ are native to North America. Results provide support to "the hypothesis that ‘Miracinonyx’ preyed upon Antilocapra, but not exclusively”. Though it is not seen as conclusive evidence and more study is required, scientists say this "may provide an explanation for why pronghorns are so fast. Maybe they were chased by cheetahs after all".

Picture Crdit : Google 

These are tales not just of perseverance and love for science, but also of discrimination and unfair treatment. Despite making groundbreaking discoveries, their names remain largely unknown, simply because they are women. Let's celebrate these women scientists and their contribution to the world....

ESTHER MIRIAM ZIMMER LEDERBERG (1922-2006)

Esther Miriam Zimmer Lederberg was an American microbiologist, who discovered bacterial virus Lambda phage and the bacterial fertility factor F (F plasmid). Like many woman scientists of her time, Esther Lederberg was not given credit for her scientific contribution because of her gender. While her husband, her mentor and another research partner won 1958 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovering how genetic material is transferred between bacteria, Esther wasn't even mentioned in the citation, even though her work significantly contributed to the discovery.

Esther Miriam Lederberg was born in Bronx, New York, into a humble family. When studying masters in genetics at Stanford University, Esther struggled to make ends meet. As recollected by Esther in her interviews, she had sometimes eaten frogs’ legs leftover from laboratory dissections.

Esther met her future husband Joshua Lederberg at Stanford. They moved to the University of Wisconsin, where they would begin years of collaboration. Throughout the 1950s, they published papers together and apart, as both made discoveries about bacteria and genetics of bacteria.

Esther Lederberg's contributions to the field of microbiology were enormous. In 1950, she discovered the lambda phage, a type of bacterial virus, which replicates inside the DNA of bacteria. She developed an important technique known as replica plating, still used in microbiology labs all over the world. Along with her husband and other team members, she discovered the bacterial fertility factor.

CECILIA PAYNE-GAPOSCHKIN (1900-1979)

Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin was a British-born American astronomer who was the first to propose that stars are made of hydrogen and helium.

Cecilia Payne was born in 1900 in Buckinghamshire, England. In 1919, she got a scholarship to study at Newnham College, Cambridge University, where she initially studied botany, physics, and chemistry. Inspired by Arthur Eddington, an English astronomer, she dropped out to study astronomy.

Studying astronomy at Cambridge in the 1920s was a lonely prospect for a woman. Cecilia sat alone, as she was not allowed to occupy the same rows of seats as her male classmates. The ordeal did not end there. Because of her gender, Cecilia was not awarded a degree, despite fulfilling the requirements in 1923. (Cambridge did not grant degrees to women until 1948.)

Finding no future for a woman scientist in England, she headed to the United States, where she received a fellowship to study at Haward Observatory. In her PhD thesis, published as Stellar Atmospheres in 1925, Cecilia showed for the first time how to read the surface temperature of any star from its spectrum. She also proposed that stars are composed mostly of hydrogen and helium. In 1925, she became the first person to earn a PhD in astronomy. But she received the doctorate from Radcliffe College, since Harvard did not grant doctoral degrees to women then. She also became the first female professor in her faculty at Harvard in 1956.

Cecilia contributed widely to the physical understanding of the stars and was honoured with awards later in her lifetime.

CHIEN-SHIUNG WU (1912-1997)

Chien-Shiung Wu is a Chinese-American physicist who is known for the Wu Experiment that she carried out to disprove a quantum mechanics concept called the Law of Parity Conservation. But the Nobel Committee failed to recognise her contribution, when theoretical physicists Tsung-Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang, who had worked on the project, were awarded the Prize in 1957.

Chien-Shiung Wu was born in a small town in Jiangsu province, China, in 1912. She studied physics at a university in Shanghai and went on to complete PhD from the University of California, Berkeley in 1940.

In 1944, during WWII, she joined the Manhattan Project at Columbia University, focussing on radiation detectors. After the war, Wu began investigating beta decay and made the first confirmation of Enrico Fermi's theory of beta decay. Her book "Beta Decay," published in 1965, is still a standard reference for nuclear physicists.

In 1956, theoretical physicists Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang approached Wu to devise an experiment to disprove the Law of Parity Conservation, according to which two physical systems, such as two atoms, are mirror images that behave in identical ways. Using cobalt-60, a radioactive form of the cobalt metal, Wu's experiment successfully disproved the law.

In 1958, her research helped answer important biological questions about blood and sickle cell anaemia. She is fondly remembered as the "First Lady of Physics", the "Chinese Madame Curie" and the "Queen of Nuclear Research”.

LISE MEITNER (1878-1968)

Lise Meitner was an Austrian-Swedish physicist, who was part of a team that discovered nuclear fission. But she was overlooked for the Nobel Prize and instead her research partner Otto Hahn was awarded for the discovery.

Lise Meitner was born on November 7, 1878, in Vienna. Austria had restrictions on women education, but Meitner managed to receive private tutoring in physics. She went on to receive her doctorate at the University of Vienna. Meitner later worked with Otto Hahn for around 30 years, during which time they discovered several isotopes including protactinium-231, studied nuclear isomerism and beta decay. In the 1930s, the duo was joined by Fritz Strassmann, and the team investigated the products of neutron bombardment of uranium.

In 1938, as Germany annexed Austria, Meitner, a Jew, fled to Sweden. She suggested that Hahn and Strassmann perform further tests on a uranium product, which later turned out to be barium. Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch explained the physical characteristics of this reaction and proposed the term 'fission' to refer to the process when an atom separates and creates energy. Meitner was offered a chance to work on the Manhattan Project to develop an atomic bomb. However, she turned down the offer.

JANAKI AMMAL (1897-1984)

Janaki Ammal was an Indian botanist, who has a flower- the pink-white Magnolia Kobus Janaki Ammal named after her.

She undertook an extraordinary journey from a small town in Kerala to the John Innes Horticultural Institute at London. She was born in Thalassery, Kerala, in 1897.

Her family encouraged her to engage in intellectual pursuit from a very young age. She graduated in Botany in Madras in 1921 and went to Michigan as the first Oriental Barbour Fellow where she obtained her DSc in 1931. She did face gender and caste discrimination in India, but found recognition for her work outside the country.

After a stint at the John Innes Horticultural Institute at London, she was invited to work at the Royal Horticulture Society at Wisley, close to the famous Kew Gardens. In 1945, she co-authored The Chromosome Atlas of Cultivated Plants with biologist CD Darlington. Her major contribution came about at the Sugarcane Breeding Station at Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. Janaki's work helped in the discovery of hybrid varieties of high-yielding sugarcane. She also produced many hybrid eggplants (brinjal). She was awarded Padma Shri in 1977.

GERTY CORI (1896-1957)

Gerty Cori was an Austrian-American biochemist, known for her discovery of how the human body stores and utilises energy. In 1947, she became the first woman to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine and the third woman to win a Nobel.

Gerty Theresa Cori was born in Prague in 1896. She received the Doctorate in Medicine from the German University of Prague in 1920 and got married to Carl Cori the same year.

Immigrating to the United States in 1922, the husband-wife duo joined the staff of the Institute for the Study of Malignant Disease, Bualo. N.Y. Working together on glucose metabolism in 1929, they discovered the 'Cori Cycle' the pathway of conversion of glycogen (stored form of sugar) to glucose (usable form of sugar). In 1936, they discovered the enzyme Phosphorylase, which breaks down muscle glycogen, and identified glucose 1-phosphate (or Cori ester) as the first intermediate in the reaction.

The Coris were consistently interested in the mechanism of action of hormones and they carried out several studies on the pituitary gland. In 1947, Gerty Cori, Carl Cori and Argentine physiologist Bernardo Houssay received the Nobel Prize in 1947 for their discovery of the course of the catalytic conversion of glycogen.

Although the Coris were equals in the lab, they were not treated as equals. Gerty faced gender discrimination throughout her career. Few institutions hired Gerty despite her accomplishments, and those that did hire, did not give her equal status or pay.

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Environmental science integrates several disciplines, including ecology, biology, zoology, oceanography, atmospheric science, soil science, geology, and chemistry. It throws light on how natural and human-made processes interact with one another to impact our planet. Here's a peek into a few words related to this science

Anthropocentrism

The word means centred on humans. This belief places humans and their existence at the centre of the world to mean that we are more important than everything else. However, many have argued that this is ethically wrong and at the root of the ecological crisis staring at us today. For one, by placing ourselves above other species, we view them as resources to be exploited. And that would explain the unsustainable pace of human growth and development at the cost of other species, and, eventually, perhaps the planet itself.

Artificial selection

In nature, each living creature is different. Each finds a way to survive, and passes on the traits for survival to the next generation. This is called natural selection. In artificial selection though, humans identify desirable traits in plants and animals, and take steps to improve those traits in future generations. Also known as selective breeding, the process has pros and cons. For instance, it can result in a new disease-resistant crop with high yield but can lead to loss of diversity in the long-run.

Carbon sequestration

It refers to the long-term storage of carbon in plants, soils, geologic formations, and the ocean. This stored carbon has the potential to get released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, both naturally (decomposition of organic matter) and through human activities. The amount of carbon dioxide getting released into the atmosphere has been increasing, especially through human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels.

Bioaccumulation

This refers to the process in which external components - such as toxic chemicals or metals gradually accumulate within an organism-such as fish. Since any organism is part of a food chain, it affects- other organisms too. For instance, when chemicals end up in a waterbody through wind or rain, they sink to the bottom. Tiny creatures in the waterbody consume these when they dig the sediment. These creatures are consumed by larger creatures, and finally, large fish are likely to be eaten by humans. And throughout the process, these chemicals can get transferred from one organism to another, harming them.

E-waste

The shortened version of electronic waste, e-waste is non-biodegradable and includes everything from televisions and computers to mobile phones and home appliances and their components. These discarded products can contain toxic substances such as lead and mercury and also metals such as gold, silver, copper, platinum, aluminium, etc. When not disposed of properly, the toxic substances in e-waste accumulate in the environment, in the soil, air, water, and living things.

Commingled recycling

In this process, all kinds of used materials - both biodegradable and non-biodegradable - such as plastics, glass, metals, etc. are gathered in a collection truck and later sorted at a recycling unit. This process has benefits and drawbacks. The absence of segregation eliminates the need for separate trucks for different materials, cutting down on fuel, resultant emission, etc. But, it could mean contamination of materials and indifference on the part of consumers about what they use.

Rainwater harvesting

It refers to the conscious effort of collecting and storing rainwater rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater-from rooftops, roads, open areas, etc. can either be filtered and stored or allowed into the ground. Rain is one of the few sources of clean water for us, and given the water crisis looming the world over, it is crucial to find ways to conserve this precious natural resource. Rainwater harvesting also lowers our demand on freshwater resources, slows erosion in dry environments, reduces flooding in low-lying areas, etc.

Brownfield

A brownfield is a parcel of land "that was previously used for industrial purposes and which is contaminated by low concentrations of hazardous chemicals". Most such lands are seen as requiring environmental justice because the toxins there can affect air and water quality, and, in turn, human health. Also, they have the potential to become a dumping ground for hazardous waste. "This creates a situation that deters economic development, decreases property values, and harms the aesthetic value of a community."

Waste hierarchy

This is a simple tool of evaluation used for different waste management options - from the best to the worst for our surroundings. The order in the evaluation is usually as follows: prevention, re-use, recycling, recovery, disposal. The most preferred option is to prevent waste and the least preferred choice is disposal in landfill sites. Having a proper idea of waste generated and how to handle it - whether in a small household or a large company-will go a long way in helping us be efficient with our resources and make planet-friendly choices, leading to better environmental results.

Green purchasing

Also known as sustainable or environmentally responsible purchasing, green purchasing refers to acquiring products and services with no or minimal negative effect on human health and the environment. Such a purchase takes into consideration everything from raw material sourcing to packaging and delivery. It conserves resources, cuts costs, supports local people, and encourages a greener lifestyle. In short, it is kinder to the planet and its inhabitants in every possible way.

Intercropping

You may have seen a single crop being raised on a large parcel of agricultural land. This is called monoculture. When two or more types of crops are raised simultaneously in a field, it is called intercropping. It helps in the effective use of land, offers better profit, can prevent soil erosion, improve ecosystem, etc. It also has a few disadvantages. It can be labour-intensive, time-consuming, be affected by disease, etc. But, with proper planning, intercropping can prove to be beneficial.

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Science fiction (sci-fi) has taken us on incredible journeys through time and space, allowing us to explore the depths of our imagination and the limits of the universe.

The term science fiction was first used by William Wilson in 1851 in a book of poetry titled ‘A Little Earnest Book Upon a Great Old subject’. However, the term's modern usage is credited to Hugo Gernsback, who founded the first sci-fi magazine, ‘Amazing Stories’ in 1926. The American editor used this term to describe stories that combined scientific speculation with adventure and futuristic concepts. The term gained widespread use in the 1930s and 1940s and has since become a popular genre of literature and entertainment.

Generally, the beginning of the literary genre of sci-fi is traced to 19th Century England and the Industrial Revolution, a time when rapid technological change inspired and led to the popularisation of stories and narratives that were ideally set in the future and explored themes such as time travel and interplanetary voyages. These stories dealt with the limits of human knowledge and the unintended consequences of our technological prowess. However, literary scholars claim that the earliest literary work that could fit into the genre of sci-fi dates back to the second Century AD.

A True Story: The earliest surviving work of sci-fi

Written by a Syrian satirist Lucian, ‘A True Story’, (also known as ‘True History’) is a two-book parodic adventure story and a travelogue about outer space exploration, extraterrestrial lifeforms, and interplanetary warfare. It is just extraordinary to know that the author produced a story that so accurately incorporated multiple hallmarks of what we generally associate with modern sci-fi, centuries before the invention of instruments such as the telescope.

Lucian was from Samosata (present-day Turkey), and his first language is believed to be Aramaic but he wrote in Greek. He might not be a household name today but literary scholars call him one of antiquity's most brilliant satirists and inventive wits. He is famous throughout European history for producing his absurd yet fantastical works and for his overt dispelling of the ridiculous and ill-logical social conventions and superstitions of his time. His works have been an inspiration for literary classics such as Jonathan Swift's ‘Gulliver's Travels’ and Thomas ‘More's Utopia’.

The basic classification of sci-fi

Sci-fi can be broadly classified into two categories: soft sci-fi and hard sci-fi.

Soft sci-fi, also known as social sci-fi, emphasises the social and humanistic aspects of science and technology, often exploring the effects of scientific advances on society and individuals. Examples of soft sci-fi include Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale which explores the social and political consequences of a future where women's rights have been severely restricted. Hard sci-fi, also known as scientific or realistic sci-fi, places a greater emphasis on scientific accuracy and realism, often using established scientific principles and theories to explore the possibilities of the future. An example of this is Andy Weir’s ‘The Martian’, which narrates the story of an astronaut stranded on Mars and his efforts to survive by using his scientific knowledge and problem-solving skills.

Picture Credit : Google 

Science fiction (sci-fi) has taken us on incredible journeys through time and space, allowing us to explore the depths of our imagination and the limits of the universe.

The term science fiction was first used by William Wilson in 1851 in a book of poetry titled ‘A Little Earnest Book Upon a Great Old subject’. However, the term's modern usage is credited to Hugo Gernsback, who founded the first sci-fi magazine, ‘Amazing Stories’ in 1926. The American editor used this term to describe stories that combined scientific speculation with adventure and futuristic concepts. The term gained widespread use in the 1930s and 1940s and has since become a popular genre of literature and entertainment.

Generally, the beginning of the literary genre of sci-fi is traced to 19th Century England and the Industrial Revolution, a time when rapid technological change inspired and led to the popularisation of stories and narratives that were ideally set in the future and explored themes such as time travel and interplanetary voyages. These stories dealt with the limits of human knowledge and the unintended consequences of our technological prowess. However, literary scholars claim that the earliest literary work that could fit into the genre of sci-fi dates back to the second Century AD.

A True Story: The earliest surviving work of sci-fi

Written by a Syrian satirist Lucian, ‘A True Story’, (also known as ‘True History’) is a two-book parodic adventure story and a travelogue about outer space exploration, extraterrestrial lifeforms, and interplanetary warfare. It is just extraordinary to know that the author produced a story that so accurately incorporated multiple hallmarks of what we generally associate with modern sci-fi, centuries before the invention of instruments such as the telescope.

Lucian was from Samosata (present-day Turkey), and his first language is believed to be Aramaic but he wrote in Greek. He might not be a household name today but literary scholars call him one of antiquity's most brilliant satirists and inventive wits. He is famous throughout European history for producing his absurd yet fantastical works and for his overt dispelling of the ridiculous and ill-logical social conventions and superstitions of his time. His works have been an inspiration for literary classics such as Jonathan Swift's ‘Gulliver's Travels’ and Thomas ‘More's Utopia’.

The basic classification of sci-fi

Sci-fi can be broadly classified into two categories: soft sci-fi and hard sci-fi.

Soft sci-fi, also known as social sci-fi, emphasises the social and humanistic aspects of science and technology, often exploring the effects of scientific advances on society and individuals. Examples of soft sci-fi include Margaret Atwood's The Handmaid's Tale which explores the social and political consequences of a future where women's rights have been severely restricted. Hard sci-fi, also known as scientific or realistic sci-fi, places a greater emphasis on scientific accuracy and realism, often using established scientific principles and theories to explore the possibilities of the future. An example of this is Andy Weir’s ‘The Martian’, which narrates the story of an astronaut stranded on Mars and his efforts to survive by using his scientific knowledge and problem-solving skills.

Picture Credit : Google 

What you need:

A lighter or a matchbox, a piece of plain paper, water, rubbing alcohol (70% strength), a glass, a measuring cup, a pair of tongs, adult supervision.

What to do:

In the glass, mix 30 ml of water and 90 ml of rubbing alcohol. Stir the mixture well.

Using the tongs, dip the paper into the mixture. Soak it completely.

Lift the paper out of the liquid and shake off any extra droplets. Stow the glass with the mixture away from your experiment table.

Now, using the lighter or a matchstick, set the bottom part of the paper on fire while still holding it with the tongs.

What happens:

If all goes well, the paper should catch fire but it doesn't bum to ash. In fact, the flame goes out, leaving your paper intact.

 Why?

The key is water. If you had dipped the paper into a pure alcohol solution, the paper would have burnt to a crisp.

But when you ignite the paper that is soaked in a water-alcohol mixture, the water absorbs most of the heat generated by the flame and starts to evaporate. This absorption and evaporation of water does not allow the temperature to rise to the point where the paper starts to burn. Needless to say that if the ratio of the alcohol and water is altered, the paper will burn!

Picture Credit : Google 

What you need:

Three small balloons, three packets of yeast, sugar, warm water, three one-litre plastic bottles

What to do:

• Fill up each bottle with about one inch of very warm water.
• Put one packet of yeast into each bottle.
• Now, in the first bottle, put one teaspoon of sugar; in the second one, put two teaspoons, and three teaspoons in the third. Cap all the bottles and shake them well.
• Open the caps and put the three balloons on the bottles' necks. Leave the bottles undisturbed for a couple of hours.

 What happens:

The balloons begin to inflate in a while. The bottle with the maximum amount of sugar has the most inflated balloon.

 Why?

Yeasts are nothing but a kind of microorganism. They like to feed on sugar. Which is why they are used mostly in baking.

Yeasts require warmth and moisture to become active.

When yeasts begin to feed on sugar, carbon dioxide gas is released. This gas fills the bottle and then inflates the balloon. The more sugar the yeasts get to eat, the more gas they release and the more the balloon inflates.

Picture Credit : Google

What you need:

A small ball, a jar with a mouth larger than the ball

• What to do:
• Keep the ball on a flat surface, like the floor or a table.
• Invert the jar over it.
• Try to pick up the ball with the jar. Can you?
• Now, start to move the jar in a circle around the ball. Gradually, increase the speed.

What happens:

You can't lift the ball with a stationary jar. But when the jar is moving in a circular motion, the ball also starts to move along the rim until it gradually moves up into the jar. If you continue the circular movement, you can lift the jar right off the table without dropping the ball! This takes a little practice though.

Why?

When the circular motion of the jar is smooth, the ball also begins to move in a circle inside the jar. This happens due to a force called 'centripetal force’.

Centripetal force is the force that acts on a body that is moving in a curved path. While the speed of the ball (and the jars shape) makes it move in a circle, it is centripetal force that keeps it going.

You can lift up the jar when the centripetal force on the ball becomes more than the gravitational force acting on it. Once you slow down or stop rotating the jar, the centripetal force decreases and gravity takes over once more, causing the ball to drop out.

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Scientists find that minerals from the asteroid were produced more than 4.5 billion years ago, even closer to the beginnings of the solar system

The age of our solar system is estimated to be around 4.57 billion years. While previous studies of ancient meteorites have revealed minerals created 4.5 billion years ago, a new study has pushed that even closer to the beginnings of the solar system.

Using mineral samples from the Ryugu asteroid collected by Japan's Hayabusa2 spacecraft, researchers from the University of California - Los Angeles are trying to better understand the chemical composition of the early solar system, closer to its infancy. Their results were published in January in Nature Astronomy.

Within 1.8 million years

 With the help of isotopic analysis, scientists discovered that carbonate minerals in the samples were crystallised through reactions with water. According to their estimates, these carbonates were formed within the first 1.8 million years after the solar system came into existence. They thus preserve a record of the temperature and composition of the asteroid as it was at that time.

Apart from being rocky and carbon-rich, Ryugu is the first C-type (carbonaceous) asteroid from which samples have been collected and studied. Unlike meteorites, which might have been chemically contaminated during their contact with Earth, these samples plucked off the asteroid are untouched.

Formed rather rapidly

Based on their research, the scientists were able to tell that Ryugu's carbonates were formed several million years earlier than previously believed.

Additionally, it also indicates that Ryugu, or the parent asteroid from which it broke off, was a relatively small object- less than 20 km in diameter. This came as a surprise as most existing models predicted the formation of bodies at least 50 km in diameter.

In essence, the study helped the researchers suggest that the Ryugu asteroid and similar objects formed in the outer solar system. They must have formed relatively rapidly and probably as small bodies.

Understanding the mineral structure of asteroids provides insights into various questions on astrobiology. Current and future research on the Ryugu samples and other materials will thus continue to help our understanding about the formation of the solar system's planets, including our own Earth.

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On February 5, 1971, Apollo 14 made a successful landing on the lunar surface, thereby becoming the third human landing on the moon after Apollo 11 and Apollo 12.

When we talk about the Apollo programme, it is often hard to look beyond the Apollo 11 mission, which achieved the distinction of landing the first humans on the moon. Even though the Apollo programme is best remembered for this, it should also be noted that it provided for innumerable demonstrations of ingenuity and problem solving and increased NASA's expertise by leaps and bounds.

Following the success of Apollo 11 in July 1969, Apollo 12 landed humans on the moon in November 1969. Apollo 13, however, had to be aborted following an oxygen tank explosion in the service module.

This meant that the Fra Mauro Formation, originally planned to be the lunar landing site for Apollo 13, served as the landing site for Apollo 14, once NASA had completed an accident investigation and upgraded the spacecraft.

Shepard, Mitchell, and Roosa

Launched on January 31, 1971, Apollo 14 had a three-member crew that included commander Alan Shepard, lunar module pilot Edgar Mitchell, and command module pilot Stuart Rossa. Even though there was a potential short circuit in an abort switch on the lunar module and the landing radar came on very late during the landing sequence, Shepard and Mitchell successfully landed on the lunar surface on February 5. In fact, it was the most precise landing until then, as they landed less than 100 feet from the targeted point.

Shepard and Mitchell spent over 33 hours on the moon, including two extra vehicular activities (EVAS) that spanned nine hours and 23 minutes. Even though the first of the two EVAS began an hour later than scheduled due to communications systems problems, it turned out to be a success.

Modular Equipment Transporter

The first EVA was mainly to deploy a number of experiments and some of these sent back data to Earth until September 1977. While a seismometer detected thousands of moonquakes and helped find out the moon's internal structure, other instruments looked at the composition of solar wind and the moon's atmosphere.

Apart from the safety upgrades that were done for Apollo 14, there was also the addition of the Modular Equipment Transporter (MET). While Apollo 11 astronauts carried their tools by hand and Apollo 12 astronauts used a hand tool carrier, Shepard and Mitchell could employ the MET like a wheelbarrow, stowing away their scientific equipment, tools, camera, and sample collections.

During the duo's second EVA dedicated to explore the Cone Crater, the MET came in handy as they were able to pick up a football-sized rock, designated 14321, but better known by its nickname "Big Bertha". Using the MET, the astronauts were able to transport this sample back to the lunar module. As recently as 2019, studies suggested that a two-cm sliver of the Big Bertha might have originally come from the Earth's crust, and not the moon.

42 kg of samples

Even though the crew never saw the interior of the crater, post-mission comparisons showed that Shepard and Mitchell were within 50-75 m from the crater rim. The round trip lasted four hours and 35 minutes in which the duo traversed nearly 3 km, including samples from the first EVA, the duo had collected 42 kg of lunar samples.

While Shepard and Mitchell were busy on the lunar surface, Roosa, who was in the command module, clicked many pictures in high resolution. These photographs of the moon's Descartes region played a pivotal role in certifying the area's safety as a landing site and even helped plan rover traverses for the Apollo 16 mission.

Liftoff from the lunar surface took place exactly on schedule, while rendezvous and docking with the command module was just two minutes off schedule. After spending 2.8 days in lunar orbit, during which time the command module had circled the moon 34 times, the Apollo 14 crew members headed back to Earth. They splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on February 9, exactly nine days and two minutes after launch.

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There are many professionals in the field of science who risk their lives for a living. Let's look at a few such professions today

Many seemingly enviable science jobs are fraught with danger. Members of the bomb disposal squad do heroic service by defusing bombs during terrorist attacks. They are well-trained professionals who have expertise in the field, but if they make a slight mistake, the consequences would be disastrous! Interestingly, bomb disposal or mine clearance experts in the British army are known as 'Felix because they are like cats with nine lives!

Scientists researching for vaccines against deadly diseases such as Ebola, Marburg or Anthrax willingly put their lives in great danger. Russian scientist Antonina Presnyakova, working on the Ebola vaccine, died after accidentally sticking herself with a needle laced with the virus.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, as many as over 1,000 doctors died in the line of duty in India alone.

In troubled waters

The job of a diver is indeed extraordinary. Deep sea divers face the possibility of fatal injuries when they are under water, because pressure is very high at depths below 90 metres. They also face the risk of drowning if they run out of oxygen supply before making it back to the water surface.

Diver Rob Robbins dives into the frozen depths of the Antarctic for a living! He assists scientists doing underwater research in the Antarctic. Typically, the scientists have to dive under a 4-6 metres thick ice sheet to study the underwater world. Over the years, Rob and his colleagues have rescued at least a dozen scientists. But there have been casualties too. Although Rob acknowledges that losing sight of the ice hole-the exit point can be terrifying, he enjoys his job thoroughly. He loves the stark contrast: above the ice there is nothing alive, only ice. But when you drop through the hole you are treated to a vibrant, colourful world of sea creatures like a deep red starfish or a soft pink coral.

Playing with fire

For a volcanologist, watching an erupting volcano is an exhilarating experience that far outweighs the risks. Many have had a close brush with death while studying volcanoes. Sonia Calvari can never forget September 13, 1989, when she narrowly escaped death in the volcanic eruptions on Mount Etna in Italy.

But French volcanologists Katia and Maurice Kraft were not so lucky. They died along with 41 others when a fast-moving, massive flow of extremely hot gas and rock erupted from the volcano on Mount Unzen in Japan. Katia and Maurice were often the first to arrive at an active volcano for filming and documenting it.

Diving inside n-reactors

American Charlie Vallance's job involves diving inside nuclear reactors! Nuclear reactors need huge amounts of water in suppression pools to keep the reactor core from melting and also as an emergency coolant. Vallance dives into these massive tanks made of carbon steel to inspect and maintain them. Although water provides a very effective shield against radiation, divers have to take extra precautions while diving into water contaminated with radioactive substances.

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