My Science School

Over the last few years, you may have come across several news reports on how coral reefs the world over are suffering. Come, let's find out what affects these coral reefs, and how this has an impact on humans too.

What are coral reefs?

Corals are marine invertebrates living in colonies. They take calcium carbonate from the seawater and make hard exoskeletons to protect their "soft, sac-like bodies". They use the exoskeleton of their ancestors while adding new layers to it. So, over a period of time as the new layers keep getting added, it forms large underwater structures called coral reefs. Each individual coral is referred to as a polyp. Most corals have a symbiotic relationship with an algae called zooxanthellae. They live in the coral polyp's body, and through photosynthesis, provide energy for themselves and the polyp. They also give corals their spectacular colours. Without these algae, the corals are colourless.

What is killing the coral reefs?

Coral reefs are found in all the oceans. When ocean waters warm, the corals expel the algae and return to their colourless selves. This is called coral bleaching. If oceans keep warming, the corals will not allow the algae to return, and will eventually die. A recent study by the Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network, a United Nations supported global data network, said the world's coral reefs will disappear if oceans keep warming. Coral reefs are important to several marine creatures because they provide shelter, are spawning grounds, and offer them protection from predators. So, when coral reefs die, it affects several living organisms. Not just that, they have a bearing on humans too.

Impact on humans

As natural barriers, coral reefs take the impact of waves and storm surges, and help coastal communities stay safe. Further, when coral reefs die, they cannot support marine organisms anymore, so many of those species die too. These include a variety of fish, crabs, shrimps, etc., which are consumed by humans. While the livelihoods of fishing communities are affected by the lack of such sea food, people consuming these are forced to look for other food options, which could cause an imbalance in food sources. Another important aspect is tourism. Tourism brings in plenty of money and supports several jobs directly and indirectly related to the reefs. When the reefs go, so will tourists and the money they bring in.

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A recent study by a team of researchers at the Indian Institute of Technology-Madras (IIT-M) has found a range of pharmaceutical pollutants in the Cauvery river water. The pharmaceutical contaminants included anti-inflammatories, anti-hypertensives, enzyme inhibitors, antidepressants and antibiotics. Besides pharmaceutically-active compounds, personal care products, plastics, flame retardants, heavy metals and pesticides were found mixed with the water. This is of great concern because the Cauvery is an important river in South India, extensively used for agriculture and drinking purposes in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. While highlighting the long-term impact of such pollutants on humans and ecosystems, the study called for upgrading wastewater treatment systems to address the issue. What is pharmaceutical pollution? What can we do about it? Read on... occurrence in rivers, lakes, streams, wells and drinking water. The pollution is particularly serious in India, as it is one of the largest pharmaceutical manufacturers in the world.

Pharmaceutical pollution happens when medicinal residues from drug manufacturing plants, hospitals and homes enter waterbodies. There is a growing concern over its occurrence in rivers, lakes, streams, wells and drinking water. The pollution is particularly serious in India, as it is one of the largest pharmaceutical manufacturers in the world.

Sources

• One of the main sources of pharmaceutical pollution are the manufacturing plants, which discharge untreated waste into the environment.
• Humans are also to blame. Our bodies don't use 100% of the drugs we ingest. Traces of pharmaceuticals exit our bodies through excretion and sweat, which enter the water supply when we shower and flush the toilet Scientists say ineffective disposal methods, such as flushing unused medicine down the toilet, should be avoided.
• Pharmaceutical products are also used in the animal husbandry, hence livestock industries too contribute to pharmaceutical pollution.

Impact

• As the chemicals make their way into terrestrial and aquatic environments, they can affect the health and behaviour of wildlife, insects, fish, birds, and more.
• An entire lifetime of exposure to pharmaceutical pollution, even in tiny concentrations, could cause health issues in humans. A study by the United Nations found that the presence of antibiotics in water contributes to the evolution of drug-resistant bacteria.
• Scientists have observed reproductive and developmental issues in fish exposed to pharmaceutical pollution.

Solution

• Drug companies should ensure that they treat their wastewater before dumping it into rivers.
• Governments should upgrade wastewater treatment facilities so they can filter out pharmaceuticals.
• People should be educated on how to dispose of unused medicines.
• Wastewater contaminant levels should be regularly monitored for corrective action.

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A portal named "PRANA" was launched by the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate Change under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) on the occasion of the second International Day of Clean Air For Blue Skies, on September 7 this year. What is this portal for?

Air pollution, a major threat

Air pollution poses a major threat to human health, besides affecting animals and plants. A type of environment pollution, it affects the quality of air around us. A mixture of solid particles, gases, and droplets that remain suspended in the air, it is primarily caused by human activities, taking the form of exhaust from vehicles, emissions from factories and vapour from aerosol cans. Dust, pollen, mould spores, and animal dander (skin flakes shed by animals) too affect air quality. Air pollution is common in large, urban cities where emissions from varied sources remain trapped.

The Central Government has launched several initiatives, including the recent PRANA, to improve air quality in the country. PRANA stands for Portal for Regulation of Air pollution in Non-Attainment cities. It has been launched for monitoring and regulation of air pollution in 132 cities across the country-the cities that come under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP). The portal (prana.cpcb.gov.in) aims at providing real-time information on city wise pollution levels. It will tracking of physical as well as the support financial status of city air action plan implementation and disseminate information on air quality to the public. It also provides information on how specific cities are curbing air pollution levels, as well as data on air pollution mitigation milestones achieved since 2018. It is said that information available on this portal will help shape future policy decisions.

What is NCAP?

NCAP is the National Clean Air Programme launched in 2019 in partnership with various Ministries and States to improve air quality in over 100 cities. It is the first-ever effort in the country to frame a national framework for air quality management with a time-bound reduction target. The tentative target is to reduce Particulate Matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentration by 20-30% 2024 by across the country.

Non-attainment cities

These are those that have failed to meet the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for PM 10 (particulate matter of 10 microns or less in diameter) or nitrogen dioxide for over five years. These were identified by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) on the basis of their ambient air quality data available from 2014.

Who developed PRANA?

Knowledge Lens, a B2B product company that builds innovative solutions in niche technologies, including Big Data, Al, IoT, in collaboration with the CPCB, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), and the Ministry of Environment. Forest and Climate Change, has developed PRANA.

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For a long time, scientists have assumed that plants became more complex as seeds and flowers made their way. A new study has revealed that this actually happened in two bursts with a long period stasis in between.

The study, led by researchers at Stanford University, reveals that evolution in land plants didn't take place gradually over hundreds of millions of years. Instead, land plants had two dramatic bursts nearly 250 million years apart. After the first one occurred early in plant history and gave rise to the development of seeds, there was a long lull in between before the second burst, which saw the diversification of flowering plants.

The difference in complexity between flowering plants and non-flowering plants is so stark that botanists have long focussed on characteristics within these groups and studying their evolution separately. This is because flowers are more diverse and intricate than anything else in plants.

A flowery problem

To overcome these differences, the researchers in this study designed a system that classified the number of different parts in the plants reproductive structures. This was done based on observation alone and then each species was scored based on how many types of parts it has and the degree to which it exhibited clustering. The researchers were able to categorise 1.300 land species from about 420 million years ago until the present.

250-million-year hiatus

Based on this technique, the researchers were able to show that land plants first diversified about 420 million to 360 million years ago with the onset of early seed plants. And even though insect pollination and animal seed dispersal might have appeared as early as 300 million years ago, it was only about 100 million years ago that the complexity of flowering plants came about The unique nature of flowering plants meant that the second burst of evolution was much more dramatic than the first.

Thus, by using a simple but novel metric, plants were classified based on the arrangement and number of parts in their reproductive system. Once that was achieved, the researchers were able to show that between the initial evolution of seeds and the total change that happened with flowering plants, there was a period of stasis that extended for nearly 250 million years when there was hardly any change. These findings were published in Science in September 2021 and offer insights into the timing and magnitude of these changes.

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October 6, 2021, marks a historic day in humanity's fight against malaria, as the World Health Organization (WHO) approved the rollout of the malaria vaccine, RTS.S/AS01 (RTS.S) among children living in sub-Saharan Africa and other at-risk regions.

Malaria is a deadly infectious disease that claims more than 4 lakh lives every year around the world. It is caused by Plasmodium parasites that are transmitted to people through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, called the malaria vector. Among the five parasite species that cause malaria in humans, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax pose the greatest threat.

Who will get the vaccines and how efficient is it in preventing the spread of malaria?

WHAT is RTS,S/AS01?

RTS,S/AS01 or Mosquirix (trade name) has been developed by British drug manufacturer GlaxoSmithKline in collaboration with Seattle-based health non-profit PATH and a network of African research centres, with partial funding from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. The vaccine is the result of 30 years of research and it targets Plasmodium falciparum, the most common parasite causing malaria in Africa. The vaccine offers no protection against the other four species such as P vivax, P ovale, P knowlesi and P malariae which are prevalent in Southeast Asia, Americas and Europe.

RTS,S was created in 1987 by scientists working in GlaxoSmithKline laboratories. The European Medicines Agency issued a positive scientific opinion on the vaccine in July 2015, concluding that the benefits of the vaccine outweigh the risks

RTS.S has been rigorously tested through a series of clinical trials since 2019 in seven African countries (Burkina Faso, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania).

Who is it for?

The WHO has recommended that the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine be used for the prevention of P. falciparum malaria in children living in regions with moderate to high transmission as defined by it. The vaccine has been recommended to be provided in a schedule of four doses in children from 5 months of age.

What is its efficacy?

The current approval of the vaccine is based on the results of the ongoing pilot programme in Ghana, Kenya and Malawi. More than 2.3 million doses of the vaccine have been administered in these countries so far as part of the pilot. The following observations have been made since:

• The vaccine offers 39% protection against malaria in children between the ages of five and 17 months.
• The vaccine prevents approximately 4 in 10 (39%) cases of malaria and about 3 in 10 (29%) cases of severe malaria.
• There is significant reductions in overall malaria admissions as well as malaria-induced anaemia.
• The vaccine also reduced the need for blood transfusions, which are required to treat life-threatening malaria anaemia by 29%.

How does the vaccine work?

RTS,S works by introducing the immune system to a fragment of a protein that is naturally present on the surface of Plasmodium parasite when it enters the bloodstream through an infected mosquito. The protein in the vaccine stimulates the production of antibodies, and allows the body to mount a swift response to the parasite the next time it is encountered. The vaccine is designed to prevent the parasite from infecting the liver, where it can mature, multiply, re-enter the bloodstream, and infect red blood cells, which can lead to disease symptoms.

Why is developing a vaccine against malaria tough?

Malaria vaccines have been in development since the 1960s, with substantial progress only in the last decade.

• Developing a vaccine against malaria parasite has been a difficult task, chiefly because of the parasite's complex lifecycle and genetical make-up. It has a multistage lifecycle occurring within two living beings, the vector mosquitoes and the vertebrate hosts (humans for instance). The survival and development of the parasite within the invertebrate and vertebrate hosts, in intracellular and extracellular environments, is made possible by more than 5,000 genes and their specialised proteins that help the parasite to invade and grow within multiple cell types and to evade host immune responses. The surface proteins and metabolic pathways keep changing during these different stages, that help the parasite to evade the immune clearance, while also creating problems for the development of drugs and vaccines.
• The technical complexity of developing any vaccine against a parasite is another obstacle.
• With no real market for a malaria vaccine in resource-rich countries like the U.S., pharmaceutical companies did not have a strong financial incentive to accelerate vaccine development. Hence there are a few malaria vaccine developers.

What are the symptoms and consequences of malaria?

Symptoms usually appear 10-15 days after the infective mosquito bite. According to the WHO, the first symptoms-fever, headache, and chills - may be mild and difficult to recognise as malaria. In no time, it can progress into severe illness and possible death.

Children may develop severe anaemia, respiratory distress or cerebral malaria, while adults can face multi-organ failure. Children under 5 years of age are the most vulnerable group affected by malaria.

Some facts about malaria

• There are more than 400 species of Anopheles mosquito, of which around 30 are malaria vectors. All the important vector species bite between dusk and dawn.
• Anopheles mosquitoes lay their eggs in water, usually shallow pools of fresh water, such as puddles, which are abundant during the rainy season in tropical countries. .
• Vector control is the main way to prevent and reduce malaria transmission. The two WHO-recommended methods are - insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor residual spraying. Early diagnosis and treatment of malaria reduces disease and prevents deaths.
• Exposure to malaria parasites does not confer lifelong protection.

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Have you come across “concrete jungle” in conversations or in your readings? The term is used to refer to a modern city or an urban area that is filled with large buildings, sometimes closely crowded. With little space for trees or grass, the term also carries the connotation of places that are severely competitive, unwelcoming, or even dangerous.

For someone from the past generations, or even those now living in villages with wide open areas, most of our urban cities might feel like concrete jungles. And that might actually include Joseph Aspdin too, an English bricklayer who roamed the Earth 200 years ago and is often credited with the invention of portland cement.

Portland cement

Portland cement is the most common type of cement used these days around the world as a basic ingredient for concrete, mortar, and stucco. A mixture of clay and limestone or other similar materials are heated to a high temperature, just short of fusing. This is then finely pulverised, resulting in portland cement, which sets under water.

Born in Leeds, England in 1778, Joseph Aspdin was the eldest of Thomas Aspdin’s six children. As was common in those days, Joseph followed in his father’s footsteps to become a bricklayer and mason while still in his teens.

Aged 31, Aspdin married Mary Fotherby in 1811, with their marriage certificate stating his occupation as “bricklayer”. By 1816, however, Aspdin had his own business in the field and began tinkering with the hopes of making it big.

Possessed with ambition and curiosity, Aspdin experimented with a number of cement formulas for years before arriving at the one that he patented in 1824. On October 21 that year, Aspdin was granted a patent which was titled “An improvement in the Modes of Producing an Artificial Stone”.

Marketing gimmick

Aspdin called his product portland cement, explicitly mentioning the same in the patent that he received. He coined this name after portland stone, a stone quarried on the island of Portland on the south coast of England that was famous for building work.

Similar in looks and colour and almost as hard when dry, portland cement was a lot like portland stone. And as portland stone was used across Britain in high-status buildings, Aspdin’s naming was a fine marketing technique as it linked his new product in people’s mind with an existing, well-established, and popular product.

Vague? Too lightly burnt?

Even though Aspdin’s patent is vague in certain aspects and his product might have been too lightly burnt to be what we call portland cement now, the invention of portland cement is usually attributed to Aspdin. He certainly gave it its name, something that still remains in common use.

By the time Aspdin died in 1855, portland cement wasn’t famous yet. It took the work of others to get it to the form that we now know it, and its significance became plain only then. Portland cement’s greatest role was in making concrete, which turned out to be the primary building material from the 20th Century onwards.

Whether Aspdin actually invented portland cement will be a point that is up for debate. Nevertheless, members of the British Cement Makers Federation and the American Portland Cement Association cemented his place in history by raising a plaque in Leeds in 1924, 100 years after Aspdin had given “portland cement” in his patent.

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The exact origin of macaroni and cheese is unknown, though it most likely hails from Northern Europe, with the earliest known recorded recipe being scribbled down in 1769. A staple of American cuisine, the creamy combo made its way to the United States courtesy of Thomas Jefferson, who, while visiting France, became enamored of fashionable pasta dishes served there. He brought back noodle recipes and a pasta machine, since this foodstuff was unavailable in the Colonies. As president, he served macaroni and cheese at an 1802 state dinner.

Kraft Foods introduced its boxed macaroni and cheese in 1937, when America was in the throes of the Great Depression. The product could serve four for 19 cents, and the company sold 8 million boxes of its quick-and-easy macaroni and cheese in a year. With rationing in effect during World War II, the boxed mix continued to gain in popularity; staples such as fresh meat and dairy were in short supply. It's now the standard incarnation of the dish, and along with ramen noodles, the Kraft Dinner (as it's known in Canada) is a mainstay of college student cuisine.

But some chefs are taking back the mac, putting inventive twists on this comfort food classic and making it worthy of fine dining establishments. (And yes, they're upping the ante from Kraft's novelty noodles, which resemble anything from cartoon characters to political mascots.) Some restaurants, such as S'Mac in New York, specialize in tantalizing variations on the dish—such as subbing in brie, figs, rosemary and mushrooms for the traditional cheddar-based sauce. Most restaurants, however, will have only have one or two options—but in a place like D.C., diners still have a fabulous variety to choose from, as the Washington Post will attest.

And then there's Paula Deen, who wraps her mac and cheese in bacon, breads it and flash fries the stuff. (Although you can forego the bells and whistles and stick to her more traditional presentation of the casserole.)

When making mac and cheese for myself, I turn to the 1953 edition of the Better Homes and Gardens cookbook, which calls for a sauce made from Velveeta, onion and cream of mushroom soup. Top it off with some salsa and a side of broccoli and I'm in a good place. So basically, it's just an ever so slightly dressed up version of what you find on grocery store shelves. 

Credit :  Smithsonian 

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The skin is the soft outer cover/organ that forms the outer surface of the body. There are over 4 million pores in the skin. In 1 square inch of skin there lies 4 yards of nerve fibers, 1300 nerve cells, 100 sweat glands, 3 million cells, and 3 yards of blood vessels. Every square inch of the human body has an average of 32 million bacteria on it. Humans shed about 600,000 particles of skin every hour - about 1.5 pounds a year. Most dust particles in your house are made from dead skin. By 70 years of age, an average person will have lost 105 pounds of skin.

Skin shields the body against infection, dehydration, injuries, parasites, and temperature changes. It provides sensory information about the environment, manufactures vitamin D; and excretes salts and small amounts of urea. Skin provides a relatively dry and semi-impermeable barrier to fluid loss. The skin acts as a water resistant barrier so essential nutrients aren't washed out of the body.

Like a big bag of grain that takes shape on what is inside it. The largest human organ is the skin, with a surface area of about 25 square feet.

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Triskaidekaphobia, or fear of the number 13, does not fit neatly into a clinical definition of a specific phobia. The number 13 is not an object or a situation, and it can be impossible for the sufferer to avoid. Moreover, in order for a phobia to be diagnosed, it must significantly impact the sufferer's life. Most people with triskaidekaphobia find that their fear only arises in certain situations, and does not significantly impair their lives. But could this phobia just be linked to superstition? 

Experts have long debated the scientific validity of triskaidekaphobia. Some feel that it should be classified as superstition or even taken as a sign of magical thinking, which in conjunction with other symptoms, could point to a delusional disorder.

Regardless of its scientific classification, triskaidekaphobia is an age-old and pervasive fear. It is commonly linked to the early Christians, as the number 13 appears in certain Biblical traditions. For example, there were 13 people present at the Last Supper, Jesus and his 12 Apostles. Some say that betrayer Judas was the 13th to join the table. This may be the origin of the superstition that states that when 13 dine; one will die within the year. However, the number 13 is also presented positively in the Bible. For example, the book of Exodus speaks of the 13 attributes of God, so this association is unfounded, despite the persistent correlation being made.

Additionally, evidence for this phobia can be found in some pre-Christian traditions. For example, in Viking mythology, Loki is believed to be the 13th god. He is also said to have intruded on the Banquet of Valhalla, to which 12 gods were invited. The god Baldr was soon killed accidentally by his brother, using a spear given to him by Loki.

The oldest known reference to the fear of the number 13 can be found in the Mesopotamian Code of Hammurabi, a Babylonian code of law that dates to approximately 1760 BC. The laws are numbered, but number 13 is omitted (along with numbers 66 through 99). Therefore, it is possible that triskaidekaphobia was widespread even among the ancient peoples.

Credit : Verywell Mind 

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As a saying goes, “Life is not about how many breaths you take, but instead how many moments take your breath away.” Those precious moments are measured by minutes or even seconds. Every minute counts in life.

Have you ever wondered how many minutes or hours are in a year? The short answer is, there are approximately 525,600 minutes or 8760 hours in a common year and 527,040 minutes or 8784 hours in a leap year. This is based on a calendar year of 365 days. The more exact answer is 525,948.7666 minutes or 8765.8128 hours per calendar year.

As we discussed in this post, there are common years and leap years. Leap year has 366 days and it happens every four years. A calendar year has 365 days. However, it takes Earth approximately 365.242189 days, or 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, and 46 seconds, to circle once around the Sun. It’s called an astronomical year. That’s why we need to add one leap day every 4 years to account for the discrepancy.

Credit : Knowhowmany 

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McDonald has built three Viking-ship replicas out of ice cream sticks. All have been seaworthy, including his latest beast, built from 15 million popsicle sticks over three years. He’s now working to break another record by sailing the ship across the Atlantic Ocean in true Viking fashion “I have a dream to show children they can do anything:’ he says. “If they can dream it, they can do it” In fact. That’s what started McDonald down this popsicle path – he wanted to encourage his 8-year- old son to aim high and believe he could succeed, all the while making the world a better place. He is adamant about creative recycling – all the ice cream sticks he used were previously used or imperfect, and were donated by the Ola ice cream company in Europe. McDonald’s home port is in the Netherlands. 

In April 1986, McDonald rocked his way into the world record book by rocking in a chair for 340 hours. Last year, he grabbed another record by sailing a ship made from 370,000 ice cream sticks, the Baby Ola Bison. The bigger replica is 5O feet long and weighs in at a hefty 13 tons, including more than two tons of glue Named Mjollnir (milner) – the Viking god of thunder – she is an open craft with no protection for the sailors whatsoever. The 6-person crew 51eeps in true Viking style: hammocks strung across the deck. Her voyage across the Atlantic began in mid-April McDonald heads the Sea Heart Ship Foundation, a group spreading fun to kids in hospitals around the world. Captain Rob (as the kids call him) recently returned from a hospital tour of Florida, the Gulf Coast and New Orleans, where he gave away 28,000 stuffed animals in 14 days (yet another record).

Credit : gCaptain 

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Marshmallows last for 6-8 months beyond their "best by date", getting slightly stickier as they age. The shelf life of marshmallows depends on the best before date and how they are stored.

The marshmallows base comes from mallow root sap, which was originally used as a medicine for sore throats.

Marshmallows are generally made from mallow root sap, whipped egg whites and sugar and then they are coated in corn starch to keep them from sticking to each other. They come in different shapes and sizes and now even in colors to coordinate with the different holidays.

Marshmallows are soft, fluffy, little sugar candies. If you ignore the fact that they are made of pure sugar and might cause diabetes if you eat too much, marshmallows are little bites of joy and happiness, which releases stress – you get where we are going with this.

Anyway, the procedure of making a marshmallow is all about whipping air into sugar. That’s how it gets soft and fluffy. The procedure is very easy.

All you need to do is dissolve sugar and gelatin in water and intensely whip it so that the air enters the mixture in small pockets.

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The truth is, there is not a single answer to how many dimples are on a golf ball. That’s because the number of dimples varies depending on the model and manufacturer. Most often, the number of dimples per golf ball falls between 300 and 500.

Golf manufacturers don’t put dimples on golf balls because it looks good. There is real science behind their use. A flat or irregular object moves through the air in an inconsistent, fluctuating manner because of how air flows over it. So golf balls without dimples would travel unpredictably through the air. Essentially, golfers would have little hope controlling a smooth golf ball.

When dimples are added to a golf ball, it creates a tiny layer of air around the golf ball that significantly cuts down drag. This forces the air to flow over a larger portion of the ball, which results in a much smoother ball flight. (Note: Dimple science doesn’t just work for golf balls, apparently it works for cars, too.)

Finally, golf balls have dimples for the purpose of lift. As much as half of the lift a golf ball receives is caused by a backwards spinning motion. When a ball spins backwards, the air pressure underneath it is greater than above it, so the ball rises in the air. Dimples magnify this effect, contributing as much as 50% to the total lift.

Credit : Golf

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You can view the 120 Crayola Crayon colors we currently produce by visiting the Explore Color section of our website, Crayola.com.  

In addition, we offer a complimentary "Color Your Own" crayon chart that can be completed with a Crayola 120-count box! 

On average, children in the United States will use more than 730 crayons by the time they turn 10. Not only that, but the average child, ages 2-8, spend at least a half hour coloring a day, which nationwide amounts to 6.3 billion hours coloring annually, nearly 10,000 human lifetimes. To meet this demand, Crayola makes about 12 million crayons every day. If the crayons were put end to end, the colorful line could circle the world 6 times. But the production line does not stop there. In addition to making crayons, Crayola makes about 600 million Crayola colored pencils, 465 million markers, 110 million sticks of chalk, and 1.5 million bottles of paint every year. Even among the crayon category, there are many variations, including the Mom-approve washable crayon and a larger, rounder size crayon to help even the littlest of hands get a firm grip. In a 1990 Smithsonian Magazine article, Beth Py-Lieberman asserted that "nearly everybody alive today probably made their first colorful squiggles with a Binney & Smith Crayola." While this may not be completely accurate, Crayola does dominate the world of color—80% of all crayons sold each year bear the Crayola brand name.

Although many people think that Crayola only makes art products, but the Crayola company is responsible for manufacturing other products, including Silly Putty. However, Crayola did not invent the clay-like modeling substance that can be shaped, stretched or rolled into a ball and bounced. Made from silicone, the stretchy pastime was invented by James Wright, a chemist with General Electric, during World War II after the Japanese invasion of Asia hindered America's rubber supply. However, he just stumbled across the concoction and was never able to use it as a rubber substitute. Silly Putty debuted in stores right before Easter in 1950 (hence the now-ever-present egg containers) and Crayola acquired rights to the product in 1977. Each day, more than 20,000 eggs of Silly Putty are made and each year, more than 9 million Silly Putty eggs are made by Crayola. This adds up to more than 4,500 tons of Silly Putty that has been sold in the past 60 years!

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The elbow is a complex joint formed by the articulation of three bones –the humerus, radius and ulna. The elbow joint helps in bending or straightening of the arm to 180 degrees and assists in lifting or moving objects.

The elbow can move in three ways based on slight variations in the positions of the heads of the three bones. The first is the large hinge action that is used in most movements of the arms, such as holding bags of groceries or doing bicep curls. The other movements are so small that the untrained eye rarely notices the changes in position, but they are important for motor function of the hand and wrist. Inside and outside the elbow joint, there are points where tendons attach. These tendons allow for wrist and hand movements. For example, they allow the hand to rotate.  The elbow bones are held together primarily by fibrous tissue known as ligaments. The ulnar collateral ligament, or UCL, on the inner side of the joint closest to the body is the primary stabilizer. This thick triangle-shaped band connects the head of the humerus to the heads of the ulna and radius.

The UCL can be torn or completely ruptured, which would cause severe pain on the inside of the elbow, a popping noise, swelling, and bruising. Injuries to the UCL are common among baseball pitchers, football quarterbacks, ice hockey players, and racquet sport players due to the type of motion these sports involve.

The other ligament in the elbow is the radial collateral ligament. Located on the outside of the elbow, it prevents excessive extension of the elbow.

Credit :  Healthline 

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