My Science School

Research chemists examine different chemicals to find out how they react with other chemicals and with living cells. When a mixture of chemicals is thought to have potential in the treatment of certain conditions, various combinations of the chemicals will be tested to see whether they might be dangerous to living things. Tests on individual cells and on animals are made before human beings are given the new drug. Many people think that drug-testing on animals is wrong, but others feel that this is the best way to make sure that drugs are safe. Trials of the drug, in which some patients are given a placebo (a drug with no active ingredients), carried out to assess the drug’s effectiveness. It is usually only after many years of testing and monitoring that the drug is released for use by doctors.

The journey will have begun in a university laboratory where researchers, with grants from the research bodies or the pharmaceutical industry, have undertaken basic research to understand the processes behind a disease, often at a cellular or molecular level. It is through better understanding of disease processes and pathways that targets for new treatments are identified. This might be a gene or protein instrumental to the disease process that a new treatment could interfere with, for example, by blocking an essential receptor.

Once a potential target has been identified, researchers will then search for a molecule or compound that acts on this target. Historically, researchers have looked to natural compounds from plants, fungi or marine animals to provide the basis for these candidate drugs but, increasingly, scientists are using knowledge gained from the study of genetics and proteins to create new molecules using computers. As many as 10,000 compounds may be considered and whittled down to just 10 to 20 that could theoretically interfere with the disease process.

The next stage is to confirm that these molecules have an effect and that they are safe. Before any molecules are given to humans, safety and efficacy tests are conducted using computerised models, cells and animals. Around half of candidates make it through this pre-clinical testing stage and these five to 10 remaining compounds are now ready to be tested in humans for the first time. In the UK, approval by the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) is required before any testing in humans can occur. The company will put in a clinical trial application (CTA), which will be reviewed by medical and scientific experts, who will decide whether or not sufficient preliminary research has been conducted to allow testing in humans to go ahead.

Each year sees a couple of dozen new drugs licensed for use, but in their wake there will be tens of thousands of candidate drugs that fell by the wayside. The research and development journey of those new drugs that make it to market will have taken around 12 years and cost around £1.15bn.

Understanding the cause of an illness can often help a doctor to bring a patient back to good health or to suggest ways to prevent the illness from recurring or affecting other people. Illness may he caused by an accident, which physically affects part of the body, or it may be brought about by tiny organisms such as bacteria and viruses. Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections, while antiviral drugs attack viruses. In both cases, some disease-causing organisms are resistant to drug therapy. Occasionally, the cells of the body seem to act in destructive ways for no obvious reason. This is what happens in some forms of cancer. However, researchers are finding new ways to combat disease all the time.

A complex illness contains two or more elements of illness, causal illness, injury illness and blockage illness, with a single cause. A complex illness requires a cure for each illness element.

For complex illnesses, the first cure is to address the cause.  The second cure is to heal the damage, the third to transform the negative attributes that resulted from illness and from healing. It is possible, sometimes necessary to work on elemental cures out of sequence, or at the same time. However, cures can seldom be completed out of sequence, because the prior illness is a cause, and the illness will recur.

The hierarchy is also a hierarchy of life and of health. It is also useful to view the hierarchy of illness. An illness can exist in a single cell, the simplest life form. A single cell might have an illness with a single cause that causes an injury that is healed, but leaves a blockage resulting in congestion.

An illness might exist in a bodily tissue, independent of the cells comprising the tissue.  A tissue is a layer of life above individual cells.  A tissue might have an illness because that is not a cause of cellular illnesses that leads to tissue injury, which heals and leaves a tissue blockage, resulting in congestion in the tissue.  In the same manner, a limb, or an organ, or an organ system might have a simple or compound illness.

An illness can be based in an organ, an organ system, or in the body.  This is the common view of much of today’s medical practice. It is sometimes a useful view, sometimes not so useful. The illness of the body, like that of a cell, or that of a tissue might begin with a cause, or as an injury or a blockage, caused by an internal or external factor.

An illness might also arise in the mind, or the spirit, or even the community aspects of a life entity, from internal or external causes. An illness might result in damage to the mind, or to the spirit, or to the community aspects of the patient, which when healing is not perfect, results in a negative attribute – leading to congestion, and possibly even a new illness.

Anaesthesia prevents pain signals from being received by the brain, so that the pain is not felt by the patient. Hundreds of years ago there were few ways to relieve a patient’s pain during surgery. Alcohol might be used, but it was not very effective. It was not until the nineteenth century that anaesthetic drugs began to be widely used. The first operation to be performed using a general anaesthetic was by an American surgeon, in 1842.

Anaesthesia refers to the practice of blocking the feeling of pain to allow medical and surgical procedures to be undertaken without pain.

 An ancient Italian practice was to cover a patient’s head with a wooden bowl and beat on it repeatedly until the patient lost consciousness. Presumably this method resulted in a number of side-effects the patient would not have found beneficial.

Opium and alcohol were regularly used to produce insensibility, both of which also had a number of negative side effects and neither could dull the pain completely. Few operations were possible and speed was the determinant of a successful surgeon. Patients were often tied or held down and the abdomen, chest and skull were effectively inoperable. Surgery was a last, and extremely painful, resort.

On October 16, 1846, an American dentist, William Morton, proved to the world that ether causes complete insensibility to pain during an operation performed in front of a crowd of doctors and students at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Morton instructed the patient to inhale the ether vapour and, once the patient was suitably sedated, a tumour was removed from his neck. The patient felt no pain. This demonstration transformed medical practice.

Archaeologists have found skulls, dating from at least 10,000 years ago, that have holes drilled into them. Because bone has begun to grow around the holes, they were clearly made while the person was still alive. It is believed that this technique, called trepanning, was the first operation. It was probably done to relieve headaches or to let out evil spirits that were thought to be trapped inside the patient’s head.

The history of dental and surgical procedures reaches back to the Neolithic and pre-Classical ages. The first evidence of a surgical procedure is that of trephining, or cutting a small hole in the head. This procedure was practiced as early as 3000 BC and continued through the middle Ages and even into the Renaissance.  The initial purpose of trephining in ancient cultures is unknown; although some hypothesize it may have been used to rid the body of spirits. The practice was widespread throughout Europe, Africa, and South America. Evidence of healed skulls suggests some patients survived the procedure. Trephining continued in Ancient Egypt as a method of treating migraines. In South America, ancient Mayans practiced dental surgery by filling cavities with precious stones including jadeite, turquoise, quartz, and hematite, among others. It is supposed that these procedures were for ritual or religious purposes, rather than health or cosmetic reasons.

Ancient Greeks also performed some surgical procedures including setting broken bones, bloodletting, draining lungs of patients with pneumonia, and amputations. The Greeks had new, iron tools at their disposal, yet the risk of infection or death was still high. Hippocrates’ theory of four humors influenced medicine for hundreds of years. He claimed that the humors (black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood which coincided with the elements earth, fire, water, and air, respectively) exist in the body, and bloodletting (or the draining of blood), among other procedures, balanced them. Ancient Roman physician Galen was heavily influenced by the Greeks. He served for three years as doctor to Roman gladiators and as the Emperor’s surgeon, gaining hands-on surgical experience. Romans continued with trephining, amputations, and eye surgery. Beginning in 900 AD, Al-Zahrawi, a famous Islamic surgeon, wrote books focused on orthopedics, military surgery, and ear, nose, and throat surgery, further influencing Islamic and Western medical practitioners.

Hippocrates is often described as “the father of modern medicine”. He was a Greek doctor, living in the fourth and fifth centuries BC , who taught that a doctor’s first duty is to his or her patient and that the aim must at all times be to try to do good rather than harm. When they qualify, many modern doctors take the Hippocratic Oath, promising to follow these principles throughout their careers.

Hippocrates was born around 460 BC on the island of Kos, Greece. He became known as the founder of medicine and was regarded as the greatest physician of his time.

He based his medical practice on observations and on the study of the human body. He held the belief that illness had a physical and a rational explanation. He rejected the views of his time that considered illness to be caused by superstitions and by possession of evil spirits and disfavor of the gods.

Hippocrates teaching Hippocrates held the belief that the body must be treated as a whole and not just a series of parts. He accurately described disease symptoms and was the first physician to accurately describe the symptoms of pneumonia, as well as epilepsy in children. He believed in the natural healing process of rest, a good diet, fresh air and cleanliness. He noted that there were individual differences in the severity of disease symptoms and that some individuals were better able to cope with their disease and illness than others. He was also the first physician that held the belief that thoughts, ideas, and feelings come from the brain and not the heart as others of his time believed.

Hippocrates traveled throughout Greece practicing his medicine. He founded a medical school on the island of Kos, Greece and began teaching his ideas. He soon developed an Oath of Medical Ethics for physicians to follow. This Oath is taken by physicians today as they begin their medical practice. He died in 377 BC. Today Hippocrates is known as the “Father of Medicine”.

A corona virus is a virus that is found in animals. Sometimes these viruses can be transmitted from animals to humans, although it is rare. Officials do not know what animal caused the Wuhan corona virus, although the market it is linked to also sold wild animals, like snakes and crocodiles.

In addition to the Wuhan corona virus, other human corona viruses have included:

• The MERS virus, or Middle East respiratory syndrome.


• The SARS virus, or severe acute respiratory syndrome, which first occurred in the Guangdong province in southern China.

It is believed that both MERS and SARS are more serious than the Wuhan corona virus.

Symptoms

Unlike MERS and SARS, the Wuhan corona virus is usually fairly mild. It can take longer for symptoms to develop. Symptoms may include:

• A mild cough.


• Shortness of breath.


• A runny nose.


• A sore throat.


• A headache.


• A fever.

So far, only 15 to 20% of cases have become severe. Those with weakened immune systems may develop more serious symptoms, like pneumonia or bronchitis. So far, only people 40 years old and older have developed the Wuhan corona virus infection.

Causes

Humans first get a corona virus from contact with animals. Then, it can spread from human to human. Health officials do not know what animal caused the Wuhan corona virus.

The Wuhan corona virus can be spread when one human comes into contact with an infected person’s bodily fluids, such as droplets in a cough. It might also be caused by touching something an infected person has touched and then touching your hand to your mouth, nose, or eyes.

Officials do not know who transmits the Wuhan corona virus most or where most infections occur.

How is a corona virus diagnosed?

If you believe you may have a corona virus, you should see your doctor immediately. Before just showing up to your doctor’s office, alert your doctor that you’re coming and why. This will allow the office to prepare and perhaps isolate patients to prevent the spread of infection. To diagnose you, your doctor will run tests to rule out other common infections.

Can a corona virus be prevented or avoided?

There are currently no vaccines for corona virus. Try to avoid people who are sick. Wash your hands often, and avoid touching your mouth, nose, or eyes.

If you are travelling to an area where the Wuhan corona virus is present, speak with your doctor first.

Corona virus treatment

• Symptoms of a corona virus usually go away on their own. If symptoms feel worse than a common cold, see your doctor. He or she may prescribe pain or fever medication.


• As with a cold, drink plenty of fluids and get plenty of rest.


• Living with a corona virus


• If you have the Wuhan corona virus, your doctor will advise you to stay home, rest, and drink plenty of fluids. Symptoms will usually go away on their own.


• When possible, avoid contact with others when you can to avoid getting them sick.

Is the virus being transmitted from one person to another?

China’s national health commission has confirmed human-to-human transmission, and there have been such transmissions elsewhere.

How many people have been affected?

As of 25 February, the outbreak has affected 80,000 people globally. In mainland China there have been 2,663 deaths among 77,658 cases, mostly in the central province of Hubei. More than 12,000 people affected in China have already recovered.

The corona virus has spread to at least other 30 other countries. The most badly affected include Japan, with 850 cases, including 691 from a cruise ship docked in Yokohama, and four deaths. Italy has recorded 229 cases and seven deaths, while South Korea has recorded 893 cases and eight deaths. There have also been deaths in Hong Kong, Taiwan, France, Iran and the Philippines.

 

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It is widely used as a substitute for coffee or a coffee addictive as it balances its flavour and reduces its acidity. It is actually a perennial plant with purple-blue flowers. Its leaves are popular as salad greens and its long thick tap root is dried, cut and brewed for use in coffee or as a beverage by itself.

It adds aroma to the coffee blend and makes it thicker. It is caffeine-free and said to have health benefits. It cleanses the blood and kills bacteria in the liver and digestive tract.

It has been in use from the Middle Ages when Egyptians, Romans and Greeks used it as a herbal drink.

However, the tasty modern brew was developed by the French who found it was a good substitute for coffee which was scarce at the time.

 

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It is the diet recommended to improve not only in individual’s health but also that of the planet. EAT-Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems was formed to do a thorough scientific study of what constitutes a healthy diet. This is the first ever study of its kind. The Lancet is an old and prestigious medical journal headquartered in London.

The commission comprising 37 scientists from various fields like environment, agriculture, nutrition, health etc from across the world, has chalked out a diet that will ensure the health of the people while safeguarding the environment.

The diet consists of half a plate of fruits, vegetables and nuts. The rest of the plate contains mainly whole grains, plant proteins – beans, lentils, pulses – and unsaturated plant oils. It includes modest amounts of meat and dairy products, some added sugars and starchy vegetables. In other words, the report recommends that the consumption of red meat and sugar should be reduced by half and eating of fruits, vegetables, nuts and pulses should be doubled. The plan is also flexible allowing for the dietary needs of individuals and cultural traditions.

Experts opine that if the diet is followed, 11 million people can be saved from diseases and death along with natural resources. The commission also recommends reduction in food waste.

The report released in January this year has been given to policy makers in 40 cities across the world.

At present unhealthy food practices are rampant all over the world. They not only increase the rate of chronic diseases but cause large-scale environmental degradation.

 

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Special drugs called antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria. Early antibiotics were made from moulds and fungi, but today they are produced artificially from chemicals. Antibiotics work by breaking down the cells of the bacteria. There is some concern that the continued use of antibiotics could create problems for the future because the bacteria are becoming resistant to the drugs.

Any substance that inhibits the growth and replication of a bacterium or kills it outright can be called an antibiotic. Antibiotics are a type of antimicrobial designed to target bacterial infections within (or on) the body. This makes antibiotics subtly different from the other main kinds of antimicrobials widely used today:

• Antiseptics are used to sterilise surfaces of living tissue when the risk of infection is high, such as during surgery.


• Disinfectants are non-selective antimicrobials, killing a wide range of micro-organisms including bacteria. They are used on non-living surfaces, for example in hospitals.

Of course, bacteria are not the only microbes that can be harmful to us. Fungi and viruses can also be a danger to humans, and they are targeted by antifungals and antivirals, respectively. Only substances that target bacteria are called antibiotics, while the name antimicrobial is an umbrella term for anything that inhibits or kills microbial cells including antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals and chemicals such as antiseptics.

Most antibiotics used today are produced in laboratories, but they are often based on compounds scientists have found in nature. Some microbes, for example, produce substances specifically to kill other nearby bacteria in order to gain an advantage when competing for food, water or other limited resources. However, some microbes only produce antibiotics in the laboratory.

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections. Some are highly specialized and are only effective against certain bacteria. Others, known as broad-spectrum antibiotics, attack a wide range of bacteria, including ones that are beneficial to us.

There are two main ways in which antibiotics target bacteria. They either prevent the reproduction of bacteria, or they kill the bacteria, for example by stopping the mechanism responsible for building their cell walls.

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Some people may be more at risk from disease than others. in many developing countries, people may be short of food or may not have access to clean water. In such circumstances, they are at risk from nutritional diseases such as scurvy and rickets, as well as those that thrive in areas with poor sanitation, such as cholera and hepatitis. In industrialized nations, the population may have an increased risk of cancer and heart disease, brought about by high-fat diets and unhealthy lifestyles.

Some groups of people appear to be at higher risk of more complicated or severe illness, including:

• Pregnant women;


• Infants and young children particularly under age 2;


• people of any age with certain chronic health conditions (including asthma or lung disease, heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease or some neurological conditions);


• People with severely compromised immune systems.

Currently, people age 65 or older are the least likely to be infected with the pandemic influenza, but those who do get sick are also at high risk of developing serious complications, just as they are from seasonal flu.

Who recommends that pregnant women, or others at higher risk of severe illness and their caregivers, be vaccinated against pandemic influenza and take all the necessary precautions, including hygiene measures, to prevent the spread of illness.

Vaccination against the pandemic influenza is prudent for everyone to reduce chances of infection.

Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) is spread primarily by contact with blood and blood products. Blood transfusions and the sharing of used needles and syringes have been the main causes of the spread of HCV in the United States. With the introduction in 1991 of routine blood screening for HCV antibody and improvements in the test in mid-1992, transfusion-related hepatitis C has virtually disappeared. At present, injection drug use is the most common risk factor for contracting the disease. However, there are patients who get hepatitis C without any known exposure to blood or to drug use.

Those individuals most at risk for hepatitis C infection are:

• People who had blood transfusions, blood products, or organ donations before June, 1992, when sensitive tests for HCV were introduced for blood screening.


• Health care workers who suffer needle-stick accidents.


• Injection drug users, including those who may have used drugs once many years ago.


• Infants born to HCV-infected mothers.


• Other groups who appear to be at slightly increased risk for hepatitis C are:


• People with high-risk sexual behavior, multiple partners, and sexually transmitted diseases.


• People who snort cocaine using shared equipment.


• People who have shared toothbrushes, razors and other personal items with a family member that is HCV-infected.

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People can he protected from certain diseases by being given a weakened version of the germ that causes a disease. This is called immunization. A successful immunization programme has completely eliminated the disease of smallpox. Immunization programmers are especially important for developing countries.

When you get sick, your body makes antibodies to fight the disease to help you get better. These antibodies stay in your body even after the disease is gone, and protect you from getting the same illness again. This is called immunity. However, you don’t have to get sick to develop immunity. You can gain immunity against disease through immunization.

Immunization (or vaccination) protects people from disease by introducing a vaccine into the body that triggers an immune response, just as though you had been exposed to a disease naturally. The vaccine contains the same antigens or parts of antigens that cause the disease, but the antigens in vaccines are either killed or greatly weakened. Vaccines work because they trick your body into thinking it is being attacked by the actual disease.

Immunity through immunization happens without the consequence of being ill and without the risk of potential life-threatening complications from the disease. Once a person is immunized, specific immune cells called memory cells prevent re-infection when they encounter that disease again in the future. However, not all vaccines provide lifelong immunity. Vaccines such as the tetanus vaccine require booster doses every ten years for adults to maintain immunity.

At any age, vaccination provides the longest-lasting, most effective protection against disease. Vaccine-preventable diseases can be serious, and in some cases can cause life-threatening complications that can lead to hospitalization. This is especially a concern for infants and young children, who are particularly more vulnerable. Having children vaccinated on time is important and helps ensure that they receive the protection they need as early as possible to fight off diseases before they are exposed to them.

Immunization is important not only in childhood, but in adulthood as well, to help promote healthy aging. This is because childhood immunization does not provide lifelong immunity against some diseases such as tetanus (lockjaw) and diphtheria. Adults require helper, or booster, shots to maintain immunity. Adult vaccinations may also be recommended to protect against disease common in adulthood such as shingles.

Adults who were not adequately immunized as children may be at risk of infection from other vaccine-preventable diseases. They can also infect others. For example, adults who become ill with measles, mumps or pertussis (whooping cough) can infect infants who may not yet be fully immunized.

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Giddiness occurs when we lose our sense of balance. The sensations perceived by the eye, inner ear, skin, muscles and joints help the body to know its stability. Several unusual situations, such as travelling in a bus or looking down from a great height, over stimulate and confuse that part of the brain which controls balancing. (This is very close to the part which induces vomiting). When we look down from a great height, abnormal visual signs transmitted to the brain, without any corresponding information from other parts of the body. Likewise, while looking out in a fixed direction while travelling in a bus, the eye sends fast changing visual signals to the brain. Such signals confuse the mechanism in the brain and lead to giddiness and vomiting.

The question of why our temperature goes up during illness can be split into two parts. First, you need to know what makes the temperature go up, and secondly, what advantage an increase in temperature offers.

 The increase in core temperature observed during illness is commonly called fever and occurs in response to infection by a pathogenic organism or certain types of physical injury.

For example, when a person becomes infected with bacteria, the white blood cells of the immune system recognize the incoming pathogen as foreign and initiate the first stages of the immune response - the acute phase. In this reaction, white blood cells called monocytes release a variety of proteins called cytokines. These are central to the immune and inflammatory response.

In particular, there is a predominance of two types of cytokine called interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumour necrosis factor-alpha. These cytokines are known as pyrogenic because they cause an increase in body temperature. It is not clear how they induce fever, but it is known that they also cause the production of other chemicals in the brain. The main groups of chemicals produced in this effect are the prostaglandins. These react very strongly with the hypothalamus area of the brain, which then sends a signal to the body to increase the temperature.

 

The mechanisms that the brain employs to affect this are not certain but are known to include increasing the metabolic rate and including shivering. These two processes burn metabolic fuel faster than normal and body heat is given off. The question of what advantage fever confers is interesting.

 Experimental work shows that the mortality of animals decreases if the fever is untreated, that elevated temperatures can enhance certain aspects of the immune response. Furthermore, the growth rates of various types of   bacteria are slowed at temperatures above normal body temperature. Indeed, the ancient Greeks believed that fever was beneficial; even in this century fever has been used to treat certain illness. For example, syphilis used to be notoriously difficult to treat, so doctors gave their patients malaria which fought the syphilis knowing that they could get rid of the malaria later.

 

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In the human body the mechanism is such that the oxygen we breathe in and the vital nutrients in the food that we eat are absorbed by the blood and supplied t the different organs.  This job is accomplished efficiently by about 5 litres of blood that circulate in a normal adult.

The amount of blood supplied to each organ depends on the oxygen and nutrition requirement of the tissue of the organ and the importance of the function it plays at any given time.

 Under normal conditions, the liver receives about slightly less than one-third of the blood that the heart pumps. Likewise, the kidneys get about one-fourth, and brain about one-sixth. The remaining goes to the muscles and other parts of the body. These quantities change depending on the body work and needs.

When we eat, the food needs to be digested and the nutrients absorbed by the blood. That is the focus of the work shifts to digesting the food and so more blood is sent to the stomach walls. Automatically the flow of blood to other parts of the body, including the brain, is reduced.

Only a few other very important functions like the functioning of the heart and lungs are continued. Once the blood flow to the brain is reduced, the body becomes lethargic and sleep sets in. So, better take a nap alter meals, it is only natural.

Researchers at the Chennai Institute of Magneto biology, say that sleeping in the  north-south direction could make one lack a sense of well being at times. According to Dr. Sankaranarayanan, director of the institute, when a man lies with his head towards north in pulsating magnetic field, his brain’s electrical activity is suppressed or damped. Measurement reveals that blood circulations in fingertips are affected and the balance between neuro-chemicals is upset. In addition, it gives subjective experiences like headache, confused thinking and lack of a sense of well-being.

As opposed to this, he says, if one sleeps east-west, in the pulsed field, the brain’s activity is considerably enhanced. Also, the peripheral blood circulation all over the body is enhanced. Hence he feels relaxed and alert.

It is known that the Earth's magnetic field pulses at extremely low frequencies and is typically in the range of human brain’s electrical activity. These pulses are not present always but they peak during certain periods generally associated with solar activity. If one sleeps north-south during such activity headache, general discomfort, nausea and confusion may result. On inactive nights, there may not be any change in the body, he says. This is true for animals also as they are more sensitive to such changes.