My Science School

Sometimes when you bump a part of your body, such as your elbow, the bump pushes a muscle against a bone. Tiny veins and arteries in the muscle break. Some blood leaks out, and soon, you have a bruise.

A bruise is like an inside out cut. A bruise does not bleed on the outside because the skin is not broken. Instead, the blood moves below the top layer of your skin. The blood shows through your skin as dark blue or black.

As the bruise heals, it may change colours. Each colour is lighter than the last. This means that the blood is moving back into your body. The muscle is getting well.

Burns are another way you can hurt yourself. When your skin burns, the burned spot puffs up. A blister forms. A blister is like a puffy little pocket in the layers of your skin. The top layer of skin pulls away from the layers underneath it, and the space fills with liquid. The top layer keeps germs from getting into the blister.

Again, your cells start to heal your burned skin. Slowly the liquid moves back into your body, and your blister heals.

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You are rolling along on your bike when suddenly you hit a stone on the road. You fall and cut your hand. It is bleeding and it hurts.

Right away, your body begins healing the cut. Your cells quickly jump into action and do their special jobs.

When you cut yourself, you begin to bleed. Almost at once the blood begins to clot. The cells stick together. Slowly, the blood gets thick and covers the cut. Then the blood dries and gets hard. It makes a kind of cover, called a scab, over the cut.

The cells along the edges of the cut grow and divide. New cells take the place of some of those that were hurt by the cut.

Still other cells to another kind of job. These are special healing cells. They make a kind of net that joins the edges of the cut together. Each day this net gets thicker, tougher, and stronger.

Soon the scab falls off. Then you can see the new skin underneath. Your body has healed itself.

Sometimes a deep cut leaves a mark on your skin, even after it has healed. That mark is called a scar. A scar forms when a deep layer of skin has been damaged. Scars may be red at first but the colour usually fades over time.

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Have you had a chickenpox or measles, cold, an ear infection, or the flu? If so, your body was under attack!

When you get sick, tiny germs called viruses or bacteria attack different parts of your body. Some of these germs travel from person to person in the drops of fluid that shoot out of your mouth when you sneeze or cough. Some are spread in food and water. These germs can make you feel sick.

Luckily your body fights back. And sometimes medicine helps your body fight the germs.

After you have been sick with certain illnesses, your body remembers the germs. If one of the germs tries to attack again, your body destroys it as soon as it enters your body. That’s why you usually get some illnesses, like chickenpox, only once.

You can get some illnesses, like colds and the flu, over and over again. This is because there are so many kinds of cold and flu viruses. If a new virus invades your body, your body does not know that virus, and so you get sick.

Do your parents tell you to cover your nose and mouth and when you sneeze? That’s because when you sneeze, tiny drops of fluid spray out of your mouth. Tiny germs travel in that fluid and can make other people sick too.

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The Government of India recently launched a mobile app called MANAS to promote mental health. What is special about the app?

What does it stand for?

The name MANAS stands for Mental Health and Normalcy Augmentation System. The app, which is meant to act as a guide, has been developed to promote the mental well-being of people across different age groups in the country. In other words, its objective is to build a happier, healthier community.

A comprehensive, secure, national digital well-being platform, the pilot version of the app was launched by the Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India, K. Vijay Raghavan. Endorsed as a national programme, the app was initiated by the Office of the PSA, and jointly executed by NIMHANS (National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences) Bengaluru, AFMC (Armed Forces Medical College), Pune, and C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced Computing), Bengaluru.

The MANAS app integrates the health and wellness efforts of various ministers, national bodies, and research centres. It is based on life skills and psychological processes, and delivers age-appropriate methods to promote positive outlook. It has gamified interfaces to enhance user engagement, supports teleconsultation, and will also be tracking the health of users.

The current version of the app focuses on promoting positive mental health in people aged between 15 and 35, although the ultimate aim is to cover all age groups. The app is not available for public use as yet. According to some reports, field trials will be carried out in the next few months to validate the app.

What is mental health?

If you’ve been wondering what mental health is, the WHO defines it as “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community”. Our mental health influences how we think, feel, and act, how we handle stress, and how we relate to others. It is important at every stage of our life.

Impact of the pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has wreaked havoc in people’s lives. There have been reports of people experiencing increased levels of stress, anxiety, fear, frustration, and depression, owing to loss of income, increased isolation, uncertainty, etc. With the country reeling under a second wave of coronavirus, people are once again forced not to step out of their homes except for essentials, to wear masks, and maintain social distancing. With the closure of schools and colleges, students have largely been confined to their homes. While online classes try to ensure continuity of education, not all can afford it due to a variety of reasons. The prolonged stay at home can mean different impacts and challenges for different sections of people. In these trying, uncertain times, it is hoped that the introduction of the MANAS app will go a long way in helping people and promoting mental well-being.

Cause for concern

• According to a report published in The Lancet Psychiatry last year, there were 197.3 million people (14.3% of the population) with mental disorders in India in 2017.
• Depression and anxiety disorder were found to be top mental illnesses.
• Also 28% of global suicides take place in India.

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With COVID-19 cases surging in several parts of the country, there have been reports of some States facing acute shortage of medical oxygen. But what is medical oxygen?

Used in healthcare

You may think there is enough oxygen in the air around us. But the natural air around us has only 21% of oxygen and the rest is a mixture of other gases such as nitrogen (78%), argon and carbon dioxide. Medical oxygen is pure oxygen used for treatment of patients in hospitals. The oxygen from the ambient air is separated using a special technique, inspected and packaged into cylinders for use in hospitals. There are different grades of oxygen such as industrial oxygen, aviator breathing oxygen, and medical oxygen.

Life-saving gas

The oxygen we breathe gets into our bloodstream, providing our body with energy. Every cell in our body needs oxygen for proper functioning if there is not enough oxygen in our bloodstream to supply our tissues and cells, then we need supplemental oxygen to keep our organs healthy. Medical oxygen is a critical component in the treatment of patients with COVID-19. Illnesses such as this cause the oxygen level in the body to dip, which affects the functioning of the cells, if left untreated. If the cells don’t function properly, it affects the organs and the functioning of all systems in the body, causing even death in extreme cases. So giving medical oxygen becomes essential as it restores the oxygen level in the cells and tissues, saving life. COVID-19 is said to primarily affect the lungs in patients. As it causes oxygen deficiency in the body because of its impact on the lungs, patients are put on oxygen therapy to maintain the function of the vital organs. Again, too much oxygen can be dangerous. That’s why doctors and caregivers keep a close eye on patients to ensure that they get only the required amount of medical oxygen, and not more. Did you know a pulse oximeter, a small, clip-like device into which a finger is inserted, tracks blood oxygen levels, and can diagnose oxygen deficiency?

States with a high demand

Amid the spike in cases, the Centre has decided to import 50,000 metric tonnes of medical oxygen plants at 100 new hospitals in far-flung areas. Prime Minister Narendra Modi has called for synergy between various ministers and State governments to ensure smooth supply of medical oxygen and for ramping up its production.

According to the Union health ministry, the Centre-appointed Empowered Group (EG2), constituted last year to ensure availability of essential medical equipment during the pandemic, is monitoring the situation of demand and supply of medical oxygen. The country has the capacity to produce over 7,000 metric tonnes of oxygen per day. It is said that the maximum consumption of medical oxygen is by States with high COVID-19 cases such as Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Delhi, Chhattisgarh, Punjab and Rajasthan.

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With COVID-19 cases rising once again in the country, the question foremost in the minds of parents is "Will the anti-COVID jabs for adolescents be ready before the next academic year?" One year into the pandemic, it's only natural that parents do not feel confident about sending their wards to schools without getting them vaccinated. Most COVID-19 vaccines being rolled out worldwide are for adults, who are at higher risk from the novel coronavirus. But vaccinating children of all ages is critical to putting an end to the pandemic.

In these uncertain times, the news that BioNTech-Pfizer vaccine showed 100 % efficacy against the coronavirus in 12-to 15-year- olds offers hope. According to a statement issued by the companies on March 31, Phase 3 trials carried out on 2.260 adolescents in the United States "demonstrated 100 percent efficacy and robust antibody responses". They plan to ask the U.S. Food and Drug

Administration and European regulators to allow emergency use of the shots for this age group in the coming weeks.

First to be approved

The BioNTech-Pfizer shot is based on novel mRNA technology and was the first COVID-19 vaccine to be approved in the West late last year.

Both the U.S. and the European Union have approved its use for people aged 16 and above. Ever since, it has been used in millions of adults in more than 65 countries.

Side effects in kids

Kids had side effects similar to young adults, according to Pfizer. The main side effects are pain, fever, chills, and fatigue, particularly after the second dose. The study will continue to track participants for two years for more information about long term protection and safety.

What about the dosage?

Pfizer gave the 12-and-older participants the same dose given to adults, while it is testing different doses in younger children.

Others in the pipeline

Pfizer isn't the only company seeking to lower the age limit for its vaccine. Results are expected soon from a U.S. study of Moderna's vaccine in 12- to 17 year-olds. The FDA has already allowed both companies to begin U.S. studies in children aged 11 and younger.

AstraZeneca also began a study of its vaccine among six- to 17 year-old children in Britain. However, going to press, the University of Oxford has paused the trial of the AstraZeneca vaccine in children and teenagers, amid blood clot concerns reported in adults administered the vaccine. Johnson & Johnson is planning its own studies in children. In China, Sinovac recently announced it has submitted preliminary data to Chinese regulators, showing its vaccine is safe in children as young as three.

 

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Inhalers deliver medicine you need straight to your lungs. It goes without saying then, that they're used for conditions which affect your lungs, of which by far the most common are asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Because the medicine goes straight to where it's needed, you only need tiny amounts compared to the dose you'd need to take of the same medicine in tablet form. That means fewer side effects and more effective treatment - as long as you take them properly.

Preventer inhalers don't work as fast as relievers, but they're just as important. If your symptoms aren't controlled by using occasional puffs of your reliever medicine, you'll be advised to take a preventer inhaler to stop symptoms happening in the first place. Different ones work in different ways, but their roles include reducing inflammation in the airways and opening the airways up.

They need to be taken every day for full effect, and can both prevent wheeze and improve your ability to get around and exercise. They can also reduce your risk of a severe attack needing hospital admission. In asthma, the most common preventer inhalers contain small doses of steroid. You may also get a long-acting version of a reliever medicine to take to relieve your symptoms over 12 or even 24 hours.

 

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The main cause of antibiotic resistance is antibiotic use. When we use antibiotics, some bacteria die but resistant bacteria can survive and even multiply. The overuse of antibiotics makes resistant bacteria more common. 

The more we use antibiotics, the more chances bacteria have to become resistant to them. This means that antibiotics won’t work when we need them in the future. If we decrease antibiotic use, the antibiotics may again become effective at killing bacteria.

Most microbes reproduce by dividing every few hours, allowing them to evolve rapidly and adapt quickly to new environmental conditions. During replication, mutations arise and some of these mutations may help an individual microbe survive exposure to an antimicrobial.

The use of antimicrobials, even when used appropriately, creates a selective pressure for resistant organisms. However, there are additional societal pressures that act to accelerate the increase of antimicrobial resistance.

Selection of resistant microorganisms is exacerbated by inappropriate use of antimicrobials. Sometimes healthcare providers will prescribe antimicrobials inappropriately, wishing to placate an insistent patient who has a viral infection or an as-yet undiagnosed condition.

 

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Gelatin capsules, informally called gel caps or gelcaps, are composed of gelatin manufactured from the collagen of animal skin or bone.

Vegetable capsules, introduced in 1989, are made up of cellulose, an important structural component in plants. To be more specific, the main ingredient of vegetarian capsule is hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC). In the current market, gelatin capsule is more broadly used than vegetarian capsule because its cost of production is lower

The process of encapsulation of hard gelatin capsules can be done on manual, semi-automatic, and automatic capsule filling machines. hard gelatin capsules are manufactured by the dipping method which is dipping, rotation, drying, stripping, trimming, and joining. Softgels are filled at the same time as they are produced and sealed on the rotary die of a fully automatic machine. Capsule fill weight is a critical attribute in encapsulation and various real-time fill weight monitoring techniques such as near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) and vibrational spectroscopy are used, as well as in-line weight checks, to ensure product quality.

A new class of capsule has been developed whereby drugs can be embedded in the capsule shell matrix. This allows different drugs to be delivered using the same capsule. The drug might be in a solubilized form, suspended form or chemically bound form in the capsule shell matrix. The drug can be in the cap of the capsule, body of the capsule or in both body and cap of the capsule. One can embed more than one drug in the capsule shell matrix. The drug can be in the dissolved and suspended form in the capsule shell matrix. Thus, one can create various types of variations in these "drug-embedded capsules". The rate of release of drug can vary based on the way drug is embedded in the capsule shell matrix and drug properties.

 

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Pain is painful, but it isn't all bad. It's your body's early warning system that something is wrong, so you can take steps to correct the problem. For example, if you couldn't feel pain, and you had your hand on a hot stove, you wouldn't know your hand was burning. Because of pain, your brain gets the message to get your hand off the stove right away!

When you take a pain reliever like ibuprofen, it keeps injured or damaged cells from making and releasing prostaglandin. When the cells don't release this chemical, it means that the brain won't get the pain message as quickly or clearly. So your pain goes away or becomes less severe for as long as the cells aren't releasing the chemical. Acetaminophen works in the brain so you don't feel the pain.

If you ever have an operation or another health problem that causes a lot of pain, doctors may prescribe pain relievers that are stronger than acetaminophen and ibuprofen. These types of pain relievers work by getting in between the nerve cells so they can't transmit the pain message to one another. The message isn't able to make it to the brain, and this keeps the person from feeling pain.

 

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The year 2021 has brought new developments on the vaccine front. On January 3, India approved the emergency use of two coronavirus vaccines, namely Covishield and Covaxin. When this article was taking shape, nationwide drills were being held to train more than 90,000 health care workers to administer these vaccines. The dry runs were also intended to avoid logistical loopholes during the actual vaccination drive that will cover crores of people across the country. Health Minister Harsh Vardhan said the government expected the first phase of vaccination - targeting around 30 crore people on priority - to be completed by August 2021. While preparations are in full swing, some scientists expressed concern over the rushed approval given to the indigenous vaccine, Covaxin.

Who has developed Covishield and Covaxin?

Covishield is the Indian variant of AZD1222, the vaccine developed by AstraZeneca and University of Oxford. Pune-based Serum Institute of India developed and manufactured Covishield through a licence from Astrazeneca and Oxford.

The overall efficacy of the AstraZeneca/Oxford vaccine has been found to be 70.42%. Serum Institute of India has said it would price the vaccine at Rs. 440 for the government and around Rs. 700-800 for the private market.

Covaxin has been developed by Hyderabad-based Bharat Biotech in collaboration with the Indian Council of Medical Research and the National Institute of Virology. The vaccine is yet to complete late-stage human clinical trials and its efficacy rate has not been released. The price of Covaxin has not been made public

What does "restricted use approval in an emergency situation" mean?

During an emergency such as a pandemic drug regulators may allow vaccines to be given to certain people even when the studies of safety and effectiveness are ongoing. This form of approval is called Emergency Use Authorisation. Normally, the process to approve a new vaccine can take years, sometimes more than a decade. But the COVID-19 pandemic has urged governments around the world to relax certain rules and to not only speed up the process of vaccine development, but also go ahead with emergency use.

Instead of the usual requirement of "substantial evidence of safety and effectiveness, they allow products into the market as long as their benefits are "likely" to outweigh their risks.

In the case of Covishield and Covaxin, Indian pharmaceutical regulator, the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO), has imposed certain conditions on the vaccines developers. The developers have to continuously submit safety, efficacy and immunogenicity data from their ongoing trials until these are complete.

They also have to submit safety data every 15 days for the next two months, and after that monthly for the duration of their trials.

Who will get vaccinated first?

Covishield will be given in the first phase of the vaccine drive. Union Health Minister Harsh Vardhan said that Covaxin will be used only in 'clinical trial mode, where consent will be taken and side effects monitored.

The Covishield vaccine will first be given to around one crore healthcare workers in both government and private hospitals. It will also be given to two crore frontline workers associated with the state and central Police department, armed forces, home guard, disaster management and civil defence organisation, prison staff municipal workers and revenue officials engaged in COVID-19 containment, surveillance and associated activities. People above the age of 50 years and those with comorbidities are next in line to get the vaccine.

How will the vaccines be given?

Both Covishield and Covaxin are meant to be administered in two doses and stored at temperatures of 2 degrees C to 8 degrees C. While Covishield will be given between four and 12 weeks apart, the DCGI has not clarified the intervals between the shots of Covaxin. (The vaccines do not need the ultra-cold storage facilities that some others do. They can be stored in refrigerators. This makes them feasible candidates.)

The remaining population will be inoculated after the people on the priority list are covered. Once it is open to the public, beneficiaries will have to register on the COWIN app and submit ID proof for vaccination.

The Union Health Ministry has said that getting vaccinated for COVID-19 will be voluntary. However, it has 'advised' all to get vaccinated.

What is CoWIN app?

For a smooth implementation of the COVID-19 vaccination programme, the government has developed the COWIN app, which stands for Covid Vaccine Intelligence Network. Registration on the app is mandatory to receive a vaccine.

Why are some experts concerned about the vaccines' approval?

Some doctors have criticised a lack of transparency in the approval process.

The main concern is that developers of both the vaccines have not presented to the CDSCO the results of their respective phase 3 efficacy trials conducted on Indian participants, Covishield is backed by phase 3 data from studies in Brazil and the United Kingdom, The data from the "bridging study" showing its vaccine can elicit an immune response in the Indian population comparable with the original AstraZeneca vaccine has not been analysed fully. Further, out of a pool of 1,600 Indian participants, the Serum Institute submitted data pertaining to only 100 volunteers to the CDSCO's subject expert committee.

In the case of Covaxin, there is no efficacy data. While Bharat Biotech has said that phase 1 and phase 2 trials have shown good results, the drug regulator has simply said the vaccine is safe and effective. Covaxin is expected to be a "backup," to be deployed only if India faces a surge because of the new coronavirus variant that has been recently identified in the U.K.

 

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In 1796, an English doctor called Edward Jenner (1749-1823) gave the first vaccination. He realized that milkmaids who caught cowpox did not catch the very dangerous disease of smallpox. By injecting the cowpox virus into a child, he was able to vaccinate him against the more serious disease. As the body fights the virus, antibodies are formed in the blood that prevents further infections or infection by some similar viruses. Today, huge vaccination programmers ensure that most children are protected against a range of diseases.

A person may become immune to a specific disease in several ways. For some illnesses, such as measles and chickenpox, having the disease usually leads to lifelong immunity to it. Vaccination is another way to become immune to a disease. Both ways of gaining immunity, either from having an illness or from vaccination, are examples of active immunity. Active immunity results when a person’s immune system works to produce antibodies and activate other immune cells to certain pathogens. If the person encounters that pathogen again, long-lasting immune cells specific to it will already be primed to fight it.

A different type of immunity, called passive immunity, results when a person is given someone else’s antibodies. When these antibodies are introduced into the person’s body, the “loaned” antibodies help prevent or fight certain infectious diseases. The protection offered by passive immunization is short-lived, usually lasting only a few weeks or months. But it helps protect right away.

Infants benefit from passive immunity acquired when their mothers’ antibodies and pathogen-fighting white cells cross the placenta to reach the developing children, especially in the third trimester. A substance called colostrum, which an infant receives during nursing sessions in the first days after birth and before the mother begins producing “true” breast milk, is rich in antibodies and provides protection for the infant. Breast milk, though not as rich in protective components as colostrum, also contains antibodies that pass to the nursing infant. This protection provided by the mother, however, is short-lived. During the first few months of life, maternal antibody levels in the infant fall, and protection fades by about six months of age.

Passive immunity can be induced artificially when antibodies are given as a medication to a nonimmune individual. These antibodies may come from the pooled and purified blood products of immune people or from non-human immune animals, such as horses. In fact, the earliest antibody-containing preparations used against infectious diseases came from horses, sheep, and rabbits.