My Science School

Although natural disasters and sudden changes on Earth's surface, such as earthquakes, volcanoes and wildfires, can hurt the animal kingdom, human-led changes, such as the cutting down of forests, deliberate forest fires, water and air pollution, have also severely affected wild animal habitats across the world.

Earthquakes and tsunamis

According to United States Geological Survey (USGS), each year there are 15-20 major earthquakes worldwide with a magnitude of over 7.0 and over a thousand that measure above 5.0.5 Unlike hurricanes and volcanoes, earthquakes hit without warning.6 In addition to shaking land, they can shake and displace the seabed. Islands and beaches can disappear from subsiding land or double in size because the land surrounding it is uplifted.7 When the ocean floor is displaced, it can create a tsunami, which is a series of high, fast waves that begin quickly, can cross oceans, and can last for days.8 They may be followed by landslides that bury animals alive and destroy their homes9 or floods that can sweep them away.

Volcanoes

There are at least 20 volcanoes erupting around the world at any time, not including volcanoes erupting underwater, which are much greater in number.13 Eruptions can last for months or years, spewing abrasive and toxic lava and ash, causing explosions, and heating nearby water that can boil marine animals alive.

Storms

The wind, rain, and debris from storms injure and kill animals and cause a lot of damage to their habitats, including destroying shelters and contaminating food and water sources. During Hurricane Dorian in 2019, winds reached 295 km per hour. Strong winds and rain can cause broken limbs, head trauma, as well as breathing problems and infections from getting water in the lungs. Animals are displaced and orphaned. Most of these problems would not be fatal if the animals were able to receive care, but in most cases they do not. A few lucky mammals and birds get care if they are blown into urban areas and are found disoriented on someone’s lawn.

Floods

Smaller animals are more vulnerable to drowning or dying in resulting floods and mudslides. Burrowing animals may be safe from smaller disturbances, but torrential rains can collapse their burrows or block the entrances, trapping them or leaving them without shelter. Burrow entrances can be blocked by branches, leaves, stones and other debris moved around by water or wind.

Fires

A single wildfire can kill millions of animals. The flames and smoke of forest fires kill most animals in their path, including many burrowing animals who are too near the surface, and animals who live in rivers and streams as the flames pass over. Even if they survive the fires, the aftermath can leave animals with burns, blindness, and respiratory problems that can be fatal or permanently debilitating. Hurricane force winds can carry embers and ash from a fire up to a mile away, which can trigger new fires. Strong fires generate so much energy that they change the local weather by modifying wind and temperature. The moisture coming off a fire can generate clouds that cause rain.

Credit : Animal ethics

Picture Credit : Google 

World Paper Bag Day is observed on July 12 every year to spread awareness about plastic pollution and encourage the use of environment-friendly alternatives. Use of paper bags, which are easily recyclable, will help reduce plastic waste that takes years to decompose, causing environment pollution.

Remember the 3 'R's? We know this mantra of Reduce', 'Reuse and Recycle can help us adhere to a sustainable lifestyle. It's also our trump card to save the Earth. What if we told you that there is also another lifestyle choice you could make to help the earth breathe, reduce your carbon footprint and regulate the usage of plastic.

Does it come as a surprise that the humble Paper Bag has a day of its own

The first machine

Not much literature is available as to how Paper Bag Day came to be or who started it. But the day gets marked with a flurry of programmes to promote the usage of paper bags. But there is a lot of drama and story behind this bag and how it came to be. Did you know that it was in 1852 that the first paper bag machine was established? This was by American inventor Francis Wolle who patented the first paper bag-making machine. Wolle who was also a priest called it the 'Machine for Making Bags of Paper.

Later, inventor Margaret E. Knight came up with a machine that could fashion out flat-bottomed paper bags. She patented this in 1870. This invention made a lot of difference enabling the production of flat-bottomed paper bags that could carry groceries.

It is interesting to note that the inventions didn't stop here! In 1883, another patent was granted. And this was to Charles Stilwell who created the S.O.S bag aka Self Opening Sack. Stilwell named it so because the bags could stand on their own without anyone's assistance while it was being loaded.

An alternative to plastic

Much has been talked about plastic and single-use carry bags and their detrimental environmental effects. Yet we still find it being used abundantly in marketplaces. People still depend on it out of convenience.

There is an organic solution to tackle this. Paper bags! One can easily create these bags using recycled paper. You must have seen that newspapers are quite often used for making paper bags.

Make your own bags

So, let's pledge never to use plastic bags and shift to sustainable alternatives such as paper bags or cloth bags.

And try making your own paper bag! Trust us, you will enjoy the process. You can introduce your fellow mates to this bag that can do so much and initiate them to the new craft of making paper bags. Make this sustainable lifestyle choice and be the change!

QUICK FACTS

According to estimates, 100 trillion plastic bags are used worldwide every year.

About 18 billion pounds of plastic find their way into the ocean every year, proving to be life-threatening to marine life. And this plastic stays in the ocean.

According to statistics, over 40% of the plastic produced gets used only once. And they get discarded, ending up as refuse on the Earth, taking years to disintegrate.

In the case of single-use plastic bags, it could take hundreds of years to disintegrate and get turned into microplastics, polluting the environment further. The plastic that we use today could easily stay on even after our journey.

SAY 'NO' TO PLASTIC BECAUSE...

It takes centuries to decompose.

It contains many chemicals that pollute the soil and the environment.

It affects food chains; harms water resources, has led to the unnatural death of animals species on land and sea. It is expensive to recycle.

Picture Credit : Google 

It's inevitable that often its climate change that makes global headlines. For years, experts have been cautioning us about the impending doom of our planet if we do not mend our ways. Among the suggestions to save Earth is the expansion of green cover. But studies point to the fact that simply expanding green cover alone may not really rescue us from the dire situation we find ourselves in. Here's why. It is an established fact that forests take in large quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. So it would make sense to increase such areas to tackle the growing carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere. But it is important to note that due to global warming, there are increasing instances of wildfires and drought globally, killing off several trees. Such trees, dying in large numbers, are adding to the carbon in the atmosphere.

Further, it is assumed that more carbon dioxide for a tree translates to greater growth due to photosynthesis. However, a study has shown that rather than photosynthesis it's the cell division that drives the growth of trees. And this process is severely affected by climate change impact such as drought.

Such studies appear to point to the fact that rather than only trying to increase forest areas for carbon offset, it is perhaps more urgent, pertinent, and wiser to protect what exists already. This calls for cutting down on emissions. thus bringing down instances of forests being lost to wildfires, drought, and tree-attacking insects that thrive in a warmer world.

Picture Credit : Google 

Universal waste is one that is generated largely from consumer products containing mercury, lead, cadmium, etc that are harmful to human health. This include everything from batteries and pesticides to even lamps. Importantly, these are things that cannot be disposed of as domestic waste but still likely to be done so, Segregation at source and recycling help in universal waste management.

Why Do We Care About Universal Waste?
The primary environmental concern with universal waste is the heavy metal components that can easily contaminate the land and ground water (such as lead, mercury, and other elements that can be toxic to humans and the environment). In addition, all heavy metals are easily recyclable, so it makes no sense to throw metals into a landfill when they can be reclaimed and recycled. For this reason, you will usually hear universal waste disposal companies referred to as recyclers.

On the topic of electronic waste (e-waste) dumps in particular, PBS’s Frontline produced a documentary called Ghana: A Digital Dumping Ground about the export of e-waste from developed to developing countries, creating toxic living conditions. Since the documentary was released, there has been much greater scrutiny of e-waste disposal practices in the U.S. and around the world. If you are unfamiliar with this “hidden” world of e-waste dumping, it may be eye-opening to watch the 20-minute video, which will explain the problems associated with these wastes in more depth than we can provide on this webpage.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) maintains statistics on the management of used and end-of-life electronics (see table below). As you can see, less than half of the electronics disposed of in 2009 were collected for recycling. Further, it is unclear how much was recycled in an environmentally and civically responsible manner. For more information on responsible e-waste recycling options, visit the environmental best practice for managing universal waste section at the bottom of this webpage.

Environmental Best Practice for Managing Universal Waste

Use an e-Steward or R2 certified e-waste recycler
There are two leading certifications for the responsible management of electronic waste, also known as e-waste. As described in the section why do we care about universal waste, if not managed properly, electronic waste can contaminate the environment and pose a danger to human health. E-Stewards is a certification system for electronic waste recyclers. It demands that these recyclers manage e-waste responsibly, such as not sending it overseas and ensuring that all hazards are controlled and managed. For a complete list of what an e-Stewards certified recycler commits to, visit the What is the e-Stewards Standard? page. The R2 Standard is another certification system for electronic waste recyclers and offers certification to recyclers and refurbishers who commit to environmental responsibility and worker safety. The U.S. EPA refrains from endorsing one certification system over the other; however, they do offer additional information about both e-Stewards and R2 on their webpage certification programs for electronics recyclers.
Purchase electronics equipment that is EPEAT-rated
EPEAT is a program that began with a grant from the EPA and is now managed by the Green Electronics Council. The EPEAT rating system applies to computers, imaging equipment, and televisions, and gives a rating (bronze, silver, or gold) based on a number of factors, including reduction of environmentally sensitive materials, end-of-life design, product longevity, energy conservation, corporate performance, and packaging choices. Manufacturers can choose to have their products evaluated for an EPEAT rating and can publish their EPEAT rating to consumers. Most of the large electronics manufacturers use EPEAT to some degree, so the next time you are in the market for office or electronic equipment, consider purchasing models that are EPEAT-rated. Visit the EPEAT Registry Search for available products. For more information on EPEAT in general, visit the EPA’s environmentally preferable purchasing section.
Recycle alkaline and button cell batteries
Though you are not required to do so, there are valuable metals in these types of batteries. Best environmental practice is to collect these batteries for recycling with your universal waste recycler. This is very simple to do; set up pails or boxes labeled “battery recycling” – you may be surprised by how many you collect. You can also encourage your staff to bring in used batteries from home. It is inexpensive to recycle batteries and should thus be encouraged at any opportunity.
Donate appliances and e-waste instead of throwing it away
That said, you should be particularly careful about HIPAA – which means it may not always make sense to donate computers or laptops (anything with a hard drive) from healthcare facilities. However, there are good opportunities to donate items like appliances, medical equipment, computer monitors, keyboards, and other accessories, as long as they still have a useful life, are in good working condition, are clean, and your intent is that someone can actually use the items (not just a free way to get rid of your junk). You can list items for reuse on the Minnesota Materials Exchange.
Switch inefficient lighting for efficient lighting
According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, lighting accounts for approximately 21% of electricity consumption in the commercial sector (including hospitals, clinics, etc.). Increasing lighting efficiency with CFLs, LEDs, and other efficient lighting options will help you save money and reduce your electricity load.

Credit : MN TAPE 

Picture Credit : Google 

UNFCCC stands for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. It came into force in 1994, and almost all countries of the world are its members. The convention aims to prevent "dangerous" human interference with the climate system. By bringing together almost all countries of the world, it places the onus on them to ensure a better planet for all of us. In fact, the members are bound "to act in the interests of human safety even in the face of scientific uncertainty".

First steps to a safer future: the Convention in summary

The Convention:

Recognized that there was a problem.

This was remarkable for its time. Remember, in 1994, when the UNFCCC took effect, there was less scientific evidence than there is now. The UNFCCC borrowed a very important line from one of the most successful multilateral environmental treaties in history (the Montreal Protocol, in 1987): it bound member states to act in the interests of human safety even in the face of scientific uncertainty.

Sets a lofty but specific goal.

The ultimate objective of the Convention is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations "at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system." It states that "such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner."

Puts the onus on developed countries to lead the way.

The idea is that, as they are the source of most past and current greenhouse gas emissions, industrialized countries are expected to do the most to cut emissions on home ground. They are called Annex I countries and belong to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). They include 12 countries with "economies in transition" from Central and Eastern Europe. Annex I countries were expected by the year 2000 to reduce emissions to 1990 levels. Many of them have taken strong action to do so, and some have already succeeded.

Directs new funds to climate change activities in developing countries.

Industrialized nations agree under the Convention to support climate change activities in developing countries by providing financial support for action on climate change-- above and beyond any financial assistance they already provide to these countries. A system of grants and loans has been set up through the Convention and is managed by the Global Environment Facility. Industrialized countries also agree to share technology with less-advanced nations.

Keeps tabs on the problem and what's being done about it.

Industrialized countries (Annex I) have to report regularly on their climate change policies and measures, including issues governed by the Kyoto Protocol (for countries which have ratified it).
They must also submit an annual inventory of their greenhouse gas emissions, including data for their base year (1990)and all the years since.
Developing countries (Non-Annex I Parties) report in more general terms on their actions both to address climate change and to adapt to its impacts - but less regularly than Annex I Parties do, and their reporting is contingent on their getting funding for the preparation of the reports, particularly in the case of the Least Developed Countries.

Charts the beginnings of a path to strike a delicate balance.

Economic development is particularly vital to the world's poorer countries. Such progress is difficult to achieve even without the complications added by climate change. The Convention takes this into consideration by accepting that the share of greenhouse gas emissions produced by developing nations will grow in the coming years. Nonetheless, in the interests of fulfilling its ultimate goal, it seeks to help such countries limit emissions in ways that will not hinder their economic progress. One such win-win solution was to emerge later, when the Kyoto Protocol to the Convention was conceived.

Kicks off formal consideration of adaptation to climate change.

The Convention acknowledges the vulnerability of all countries to the effects of climate change and calls for special efforts to ease the consequences, especially in developing countries which lack the resources to do so on their own. In the early years of the Convention, adaptation received less attention than mitigation, as Parties wanted more certainty on impacts of and vulnerability to climate change. When IPCC's Third Assessment Report was released, adaptation gained traction, and Parties agreed on a process to address adverse effects and to establish funding arrangements for adaptation. Currently, work on adaptation takes place under different Convention bodies. The Adaptation Committee, which Parties agreed to set up under the Cancun Adaptation Framework as part of the Cancun Agreements, is a major step towards a cohesive, Convention-based approach to adaptation.

UNFCCC and the Rio Convention

The UNFCCC is a “Rio Convention”, one of two opened for signature at the “Rio Earth Summit” in 1992. Its sister Rio Conventions are the UN Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention to Combat Desertification. The three are intrinsically linked. It is in this context that the Joint Liaison Group was set up to boost cooperation among the three Conventions, with the ultimate aim of developing synergies in their activities on issues of mutual concern.

Credit : United nations climate change 

Picture Credit : Google 

Soil degradation refers to the decline of soil quality due to its improper use, usually for agriculture, industry, and urban activity. Degraded soil can have lower amount of fertility and organic matter, and be high in salinity, acidity, and toxicity. Since soil is inevitable for all life forms on our planet, the continuous decline in soil quality can have disastrous results such as desertification, flooding, landslides, loss of wildlife, etc.

Various Causes of Soil Degradation

1. Physical Factors

There are several physical factors contributing to soil degradation distinguished by the manners in which they change the natural composition and structure of the soil. Rainfall, surface runoff, floods, wind erosion, tillage, and mass movements result in the loss of fertile top spoil thereby declining soil quality.

2. Biological Factors

Biological factors refer to the human and plant activities that tend to reduce the quality of the soil. Some bacteria and fungi overgrowth in an area can highly impact the microbial activity of the soil through biochemical reactions, which reduces crop yield and the suitability of soil productivity capacity.

Human activities such as poor farming practices may also deplete soil nutrients thus diminishing soil fertility. The biological factors affect mainly lessens the microbial activity of the soil.

3. Chemical Factors

The reduction of soil nutrients because of alkalinity or acidity or waterlogging are all categorized under the chemical components of soil degradation. In the broadest sense, it comprises alterations in the soil’s chemical property that determine nutrient availability.

4. Deforestation

Deforestation causes soil degradation on the account of exposing soil minerals by removing trees and crop cover, which support the availability of humus and litter layers on the surface of the soil.

5. Misuse or excess use of fertilizers

The excessive use and the misuse of pesticides and chemical fertilizers kill organisms that assist in binding the soil together. Most agricultural practices involving the use of fertilizers and pesticides often entail misuse or excessive application, thereby contributing to the killing of soil’s beneficial bacteria and other micro-organisms that help in soil formation.

6. Industrial and Mining activities

Soil is chiefly polluted by industrial and mining activities. As an example, mining destroys crop cover and releases a myriad of toxic chemicals such as mercury into the soil thereby poisoning it and rendering it unproductive for any other purpose.

7. Improper cultivation practices

There are certain agricultural practices that are environmentally unsustainable and at the same time, they are the single biggest contributor to the worldwide increase in soil quality decline. The tillage on agricultural lands is one of the main factors since it breaks up the soil into finer particles, which increase erosion rates.

8. Urbanization

Urbanization has major implications on the soil degradation process. Foremost of all, it denudates the soil’s vegetation cover, compacts soil during construction, and alters the drainage pattern.

9. Overgrazing

The rates of soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients, as well as the topsoil, are highly contributed by overgrazing. Overgrazing destroys surface crop cover and breaks down soil particles, increasing the rates of soil erosion. As a result, soil quality and agricultural productivity are greatly affected.

Fatal Effects of Soil Degradation

1. Land degradation

Soil quality decline is one of the main causes of land degradation and is considered to be responsible for 84% of the ever-diminishing acreage. Year after year, huge acres of land lost due to soil erosion, contamination, and pollution.

2. Drought and aridity

Drought and aridity are problems highly influenced and amplified by soil degradation. As much as it’s a concern associated with natural environments in arid and semi-arid areas, the UN recognizes the fact that drought and aridity are anthropogenic induced factors especially as an outcome of soil degradation.

3. Loss of arable land

Because soil degradation contributes to land degradation, it also means that it creates a significant loss of arable land. As stated earlier, about 40% of the world’s agricultural land is lost on the account of soil quality depreciation caused by agrochemicals and soil erosion.

4. Increased flooding

The land is commonly altered from its natural landscape when it rids its physical composition from soil degradation. For this reason, the transformed land is unable to soak up water, making flooding more frequent.

5. Pollution and clogging of waterways

Most of the soil eroded from the land together with the chemical fertilizers and pesticides utilized in agricultural fields are discharged into waterways and streams. With time, the sedimentation process can clog waterways, resulting in water scarcity.

SOLUTIONS : There are many solutions to soil degradation, which include: practicing responsible farming techniques, active forestation, as well as preventing soil erosion and pollution. In addition, soil degradation can be avoided through responsible developments in urban and residential environments.

Particulate matter or refers particle pollution to the mixture of tiny solid and liquid particles-metals, chemicals, dust, spores, etc.-present in the air we breathe. Many of these particles are harmful to us humans. Not just that. Particulate matter pollution alters our environment by contributing to acid rain, changing weather patterns, global warming, etc.

Where does particle pollution come from?

Particle pollution can come from two different kinds of sources — primary or secondary. Primary sources cause particle pollution on their own. For example, wood stoves and forest fires are primary sources.

Secondary sources let off gases that can form particles. Power plants and coal fires are examples of secondary sources. Some other common sources of particle pollution can be either primary or secondary — for example, factories, cars and trucks, and construction sites.

Smoke from fires and emissions (releases) from power plants, industrial facilities, and cars and trucks contain PM2.5.

Particle Pollution and Your Health

Breathing in particle pollution can be harmful to your health. Coarse (bigger) particles, called PM10, can irritate your eyes, nose, and throat. Dust from roads, farms, dry riverbeds, construction sites, and mines are types of PM10.

Fine (smaller) particles, called PM2.5, are more dangerous because they can get into the deep parts of your lungs — or even into your blood.

How can particle pollution affect our health?

Particle pollution can affect anyone, but it bothers some people more than others. People most likely to experience health effects caused by particle pollution include:

• People with heart or lung diseases (for example, asthma)
• Older adults
• Babies and children

Particle pollution has also been linked to:

• Eye irritation
• Lung and throat irritation
• Trouble breathing
• Lung cancer
• Problems with babies at birth (for example, low birth weight)

Take Action

When particle pollution levels are high, take steps to limit the amount of air you breathe in while you’re outside. For example:

• Think about spending more time indoors, where particle pollution levels are usually lower.
• Choose easier outdoor activities (like walking instead of running) so you don’t breathe as hard.
• Avoid busy roads and highways where PM is usually worse because of emissions from cars and trucks.

Credit : Centers of disease control and preventions 

Picture Credit : Google 

Permafrost is permanently frozen ground comprising soil, rocks, and sand, and often spans the Arctic regions. Found both on land and below the ocean floor, it covers vast expanses, and is a habitat for several animals and plants. Melting permafrost is a concern because it releases vast amounts of trapped greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.

What is Permafrost Made Of?

Permafrost is made of a combination of soil, rocks and sand that are held together by ice. The soil and ice in permafrost stay frozen all year long.

Near the surface, permafrost soils also contain large quantities of organic carbon—a material leftover from dead plants that couldn’t decompose, or rot away, due to the cold. Lower permafrost layers contain soils made mostly of minerals.

A layer of soil on top of permafrost does not stay frozen all year. This layer, called the active layer, thaws during the warm summer months and freezes again in the fall. In colder regions, the ground rarely thaws—even in the summer. There, the active layer is very thin—only 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters). In warmer permafrost regions, the active layer can be several meters thick.

How Does Climate Change Affect Permafrost?

As Earth’s climate warms, the permafrost is thawing. That means the ice inside the permafrost melts, leaving behind water and soil.

Thawing permafrost can have dramatic impacts on our planet and the things living on it. For example:

1. Many northern villages are built on permafrost. When permafrost is frozen, it’s harder than concrete. However, thawing permafrost can destroy houses, roads and other infrastructure.
2. When permafrost is frozen, plant material in the soil—called organic carbon—can’t decompose, or rot away. As permafrost thaws, microbes begin decomposing this material. This process releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane to the atmosphere.
3. When permafrost thaws, so do ancient bacteria and viruses in the ice and soil. These newly-unfrozen microbes could make humans and animals very sick. Scientists have discovered microbes more than 400,000 years old in thawed permafrost.
4. Because of these dangers, scientists are closely monitoring Earth’s permafrost. Scientists use satellite observations from space to look at large regions of permafrost that would be difficult to study from the ground.

Credit : Climate kids

Picture Credit : Google 

About 15 to 35 km above the Earth's surface is gas called Ozone that surrounds the planet. This layer shields the Earth from the UV radiation from the sun However, pollution has caused this layer to thin exposing life on the planet to harmful radiation. The Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (which was adopted on September 15, 1987) is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer from depletion by phasing out the production of a number of substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion.

How is Ozone created?

When the sun's rays split oxygen molecules into single atoms, Ozone is created in the atmosphere. These single atoms combine with nearby oxygen to form a three-oxygen molecule — Ozone.

 Who discovered the Ozone Layer?

 The Ozone Layer was discovered by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson in 1913.

 Why is Ozone Layer important?

 Ozone protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. Without the Ozone layer in the atmosphere, life on Earth would be very difficult. Plants cannot live and grow in heavy ultraviolet radiation, nor can the planktons that serve as food for most of the ocean life. With a weakening of the Ozone Layer shield, humans would be more susceptible to skin cancer, cataracts and impaired immune systems.

 Is Ozone harmful?

 Ozone can both protect and harm the Earth — it all depends on where it resides. For instance, if Ozone is present in the stratosphere of the atmosphere, it will act as a shield. However, if it is in the troposphere (about 10 km from the Earth's surface), Ozone is harmful. It is a pollutant that can cause damage to lung tissues and plants. Hence, an upset in the ozone balance can have serious consequences.

Disruption of Ozone Balance in the atmosphere

 Since the 1970s scientists have observed human activities to be disrupting the ozone balance. Production of chlorine-containing chemicals, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), have added to depletion of the Ozone Layer.

 What is 'Ozone Layer depletion'?

Chemicals containing chlorine and bromine atoms are released in the atmosphere through human activities. These chemicals combine with certain weather conditions to cause reactions in the Ozone Layer, leading to ozone molecules getting destroyed. Depletion of the Ozone Layer occurs globally, but the severe depletion of the Ozone Layer over the Antarctic is often referred to as the 'Ozone Hole'. Increased depletion has recently started occurring over the Arctic as well.

Credit : Business standard

Picture Credit : Google 

Noise pollution can be defined as unwanted or excessive sound that can have adverse effects on human health, wildlife, and environment quality. Sound is measured in decibels (dB) and the normal hearing frequency rate of healthy individuals ranges from 0 to 120 dB. Sounds that reach 85 decibels or higher can damage a person's ears. Some audio sources that exceed this threshold include power lawn mowers (90 dB), trains (90 to 115 dB), and loud rock concerts (110 to 120 dB). Noise pollution impacts millions of people on a daily basis. The most common health problems it is responsible for include noise-induced hearing loss and high blood pressure.

Human Diseases Caused by Noise Pollution

Whether we realize we are subjected to it or not, noise pollution can be hazardous to our health in various ways.

Hypertension is, in this case, a direct result of noise pollution caused elevated blood levels for a longer period of time.
Hearing loss can be directly caused by noise pollution, whether listening to loud music in your headphones or being exposed to loud drilling noises at work, heavy air or land traffic, or separate incidents in which noise levels reach dangerous intervals, such as around140 dB for adult or 120 dB for children.
Sleep disturbances are usually caused by constant air or land traffic at night, and they are a serious condition in that they can affect everyday performance and lead to serious diseases.
Child development. Children appear to be more sensitive to noise pollution, and a number of noise-pollution-related diseases and dysfunctions are known to affect children, from hearing impairment to psychological and physical effects. Also, children who regularly use music players at high volumes are at risk of developing hearing dysfunctions. In 2001, it was estimated that 12.5% of American children between the ages of 6 to 19 years had impaired hearing in one or both ears
Various cardiovascular dysfunctions. Elevated blood pressure caused by noise pollution, especially during the night, can lead to various cardiovascular diseases.
Dementia isn’t necessarily caused by noise pollution, but its onset can be favored or compounded by noise pollution.
Psychological dysfunctions and noise annoyance. Noise annoyance is, in fact, a recognized name for an emotional reaction that can have an immediate impact.

Effects of Noise Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life

Our oceans are no longer quiet. Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic survey devices, coastal recreational watercraft and shipping vessels are now populating our waters, and that is a serious cause of noise pollution for marine life. Whales are among the most affected, as their hearing helps them orient themselves, feed and communicate. Noise pollution thus interferes with cetaceans’ (whales and dolphins) feeding habits, reproductive patterns and migration routes, and can even cause hemorrhage and death.
Other than marine life, land animals are also affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic, firecrackers etc., and birds are especially affected by the increased air traffic.

Tips for Avoiding Noise Pollution

Wear earplugs whenever exposed to elevated noise levels.
Maintain a level of around 35 dB in your bedroom at night, and around 40 dB in your house during the day.
If possible, choose your residential area as far removed from heavy traffic as you can.
Avoid prolonged use of earphones, especially at elevated sound levels.
If possible, avoid jobs with regular exposure to elevated sound levels.

Credit : Environmental pollution centre 

Picture Credit : Google 

Keystone species play a unique and crucial role in the functioning of an ecosystem. The animals and organisms that come under this category help to maintain biodiversity within their community either by controlling populations of other species that would otherwise dominate the community or by providing critical resources for the survival of a wide range of organisms.

These species act as the glue that holds the system together. The term was coined by Dr Robert Paine in 1969, to describe the power a single species exerts on an ecosystem. Examples of keystone species include starfish, sea otters, beavers, wolves, elephants, prairiedogs and bees.

Keystone Species Examples

Sea Otter

The sea otter (shown below) is considered a keystone species as their consumption of sea urchins, preventing the destruction of kelp forests caused by the sea urchin population. Kelp forests are a critical habitat for many species in nearshore ecosystems. In the absence of sea otters, sea urchins feed on the nearshore kelp forests, thereby disrupting these nearshore ecosystems. However, when sea otters are present, their consumption of sea urchins restricts the sea urchin population to smaller organisms confined to protective crevices. Thus, the sea otter protects the kelp forests by reducing the local sea urchin population.

Large Mammalian Predators

While small predators are important keystone species in many ecosystems, as mentioned above, large mammalian predators are also considered keystone species in larger ecosystems. For example, the lion, jaguar (shown below), and gray wolf are considered keystone species as they help balance large ecosystems (e.g., Central and South American rainforests) by consuming a wide variety of prey species.

Sea Star

Sea stars (shown below) are another commonly recognized keystone species as they consume mussels in areas without natural predators. In many cases, when the sea star is removed from an ecosystem, the population of mussels proliferates uncontrollably, and negatively effects the resources available to other species within the ecosystem.

Credit :  Biology dictionary  

Picture Credit : Google 

A landfill is a dumping ground for waste materials. It is the systematic disposal of garbage or trash by burying it in the ground. Most modern landfills are designed in a way that they reduce contamination of the nearby groundwater and soil. Nowadays, they are also completely sealed to prevent the methane that is generated by the decomposing waste from diffusing in the environment.

How Do Landfills Work?

Modern landfills are built using a layering system designed to safely isolate waste and monitor any byproducts, leaks and anything else that can harm the environment. Isolating the trash from air and water is vital for preventing contamination.

We can learn more about how landfills work by examining each layer.

Cells (Old and new)

Each day, trash is compacted a cell in order to make the most of the space available in the landfill. The day’s work cell is also known as the daily workface. Here, trash is organized in layers or lifts then compacted accordingly.

Heavy machinery like bulldozers and compaction equipment are used to compress the trash and place it in the landfill. A six inch layer of dirt covers the cell after it’s made and is then compacted once more. This layer helps contain odors and prevent unwanted pests. Some landfills are considering alternatives like tarps or cement emulsions to save space.

The Liner System

The bottom layer of the landfill consists of a liner that keeps trash and byproducts separate from the environment and groundwater. Some facilities use more than one type, but at any landfill you’ll find at least one of the below liners.

Compact clay liners: These liners are normally made of dense, compacted clay solid enough to prevent waste, liquid or gas leaks from seeping into the environment.

Plastic liners: These liners are made of dense plastic and other synthetic materials, normally 30 to 100 mils thick. Plastic liners are typically used in municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills.

The Drainage System

On top of the liner, you’ll find a storm water drainage system that filters out both the liquids produced by trash and the water collected from rain and snow. This layer is important because it separates produced liquids from solid waste. Another drainage system is used to specifically filter out the liquid produced by trash, called leachate, from any rainwater and the rest of the landfill.

Gas Collection System

The gas collection system uses extraction wells and pipes throughout the landfill to carry landfill gas that’s generated when waste decomposes to treatment areas where it is then vented, burned or converted into energy.

Cap

A landfill is permanently capped with a plastic liner when it is full. After it’s capped, the landfill is covered with two feet of soil. Then, vegetation (normally grass and plants without penetrating roots) is planted on top to prevent soil erosion due to rainfall and wind. The landfill is monitored for 30 years to ensure there is no detrimental impact to the environment.

As you can see, today’s landfills are a far cry from the disease-ridden dumps from years before. The industry is also exploring other ways to make landfills cleaner, safer and more environmentally friendly in addition to the processes we’ve already mentioned. See below to learn a few ways landfills are becoming more sustainable.

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A geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, along with weather and landscape, work together to form a sphere of life is known as an ecosystem. Ecosystems thus contain biotic or living parts like plants, animals and other organisms as well as abiotic factors like temperature, humidity and rocks. The interdependence of these various parts and factors. either directly or indirectly, is what makes ecosystems thrive.

Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate, parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Internal factors are controlled, for example, by decomposition, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of species present. While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors. Therefore, internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them.

Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance. The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience. Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. Biomes are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems. Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy.

Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend. Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants. Ecosystem services, on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species and invasive species. These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered "collapsed". Ecosystem restoration can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

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Biodiversity is the name we give to the variety of all life on Earth. Bacteria to baboons, plants to people - the range of life on our planet is incredible.

All living things exist within their own communities, or ecosystems - oceans, forests, deserts, ice caps and even cities. All this put together is biodiversity: the volume of life on Earth as well as how different species interact with each other and with the physical world around them.

The word biodiversity is a contraction of 'biological diversity'. The concept is broad and complex, but that complexity is what makes Earth a perfect place for humans to live.

Biodiversity and species richness

When we talk about biodiversity, we often talk about species richness as well. Species richness is the number of different species in an area, a way of measuring biodiversity.

Studying species richness helps us to understand the differences between places and areas.

For example, the Amazon rainforest very species-rich as it is home to 10 million species. In contrast, the Sahara Desert is far less rich, with just a few thousand species.

About 1.5 million species have been described by scientists, and most of them are insects. But it is thought that there are millions more sharing our planet with us.

Endangered species and mass extinction

Overall biodiversity loss can speed up extinction. More and more animals and plants are facing an uncertain future.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the global authority on the status of the natural world. It keeps a Red List of endangered species, an important indicator of the health of the world's biodiversity.

Currently, more than 30,000 species are listed as threatened with extinction, which is 27% of all assessed species.

We know that millions of species have already gone extinct over the long history of planet Earth. Biodiversity rates have always ebbed and flowed. In fact, at least 99% of all the organisms that have ever lived are now extinct. Researchers agree that five huge mass extinction events have already happened, including the one that wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

However, extinction rates have been accelerating as human populations continue to grow, and many scientists argue we are living through a sixth mass extinction. This time, humans rather than natural events are to blame. Species diversity in more than half of land ecosystems is now critically low.

A 20% drop is widely considered the threshold at which biodiversity's contribution to ecosystem services is compromised. It's estimated that over a quarter of Earth's land surface has already exceeded this.

Causes of biodiversity loss

Biodiversity is in trouble in the UK and across the globe, and its loss can refer to local and worldwide extinctions. Species and ecosystems can be fragile, so small changes can have large consequences.

The causes of biodiversity loss are complicated, but we know the human population is making the problems worse.

In the short time humans have been on the planet we have increasingly disrupted the balance of biodiversity through changing land use, overexploitation of resources and the impact we are having on climate.

We are converting natural habitats into farms, factories, roads and cities. In the ocean, we are overfishing, drilling and mining.

Cities and towns have a smoothing effect on biodiversity, tending to favour generalist species like feral pigeons. Those that require a particular habitat, or are intolerant of disturbance or pollution, often can't survive. This is called biotic homogenization.

Animals and plants that can only live in one small area of land - like unique butterflies or flowers - can go locally extinct if the city's conditions are unfavorable to them.

A lichen specimen held in the crypt herbarium at the Museum. All living things, including plants and fungi, are represented by the word 'biodiversity'.

Credit : Natural history museum 

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The word biodegradable, used in conjunction with a substance or object, denotes the capability of being decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms and thereby avoiding pollution. While this adjective describes things that can be broken down into basic substances through natural environmental techniques, the products it is used along with can vary greatly in the time they take to break down. For instance, while a loaf of bread requires only a couple of weeks. a piece of paper might need months and a biodegradable plastic carton could take even years to break down.

Some items are obviously biodegradable. Examples include food scraps and wood that hasn't been treated with chemicals to resist bugs and rot. Many other items, such as paper, also biodegrade relatively easily. Some products will biodegrade eventually, but it may take years. This includes steel products, which eventually will rust through and disintegrate, and some plastics.

However, conditions are important to encourage biodegradability. Products that will biodegrade in nature or in home compost heaps may not biodegrade in landfills, where there's not enough bacteria, light, and water to move the process along.

Many organic companies use biodegradable packaging for products or produce organic biodegradable products, but the items may not be as biodegradable as customers think. To make matters more confusing, many items are labeled as "compostable."

Compostable products are all biodegradable, but they are specifically intended for a composting environment. In the right setting, these products break down even more quickly, usually within 90 days, and they leave behind a nutrient-rich organic material called humus, which creates a healthy soil environment for new plant growth.1

Whether an item is compostable or simply biodegradable, it needs to be placed in an environment that facilitates its breakdown. Compostable products require composting environments. But, even some biodegradable items need to be degraded in a controlled composting environment or facility—and very few of these facilities exist in the United States. These large facilities are designed to keep materials at 140 degrees Fahrenheit for 10 consecutive days.

For example, PLA, a popular biodegradable material for green companies, will only decompose into carbon dioxide and water in a controlled composting environment, not in a backyard composting arrangement, according to standards developed by the Biodegradable Products Institute.

With all of these variables, business owners need to communicate clearly with their customers about what they mean when they say "biodegradable." Even better are those businesses that take it a step further and educate their customers about how to properly dispose of their products.

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