My Science School

The Special Theory of Relativity was published in 1905. It presented the astonishing idea that space and time are not absolute but relative. Or simply put, changes in the measurements of distance and passing of time depends on the observer who is measuring them. Einstein added a fourth dimension (time) to the three existing dimensions (length, width and height).

Einstein revealed that time is experienced differently by observers in relative motion. Two events might appear as if they are happening at the same time for one observer, but they might happen at different times from the perspective of another. And the observers would be right in both cases.

Einstein later demonstrated this point with an experiment. Imagine a man standing on a railway platform as a train goes by. Each end of the train is struck by a bolt of lightning just as the midpoint of the train passes him. Because the lightning strikes are the same distance from the observer, their light reaches his eye at the same instant. Therefore, he would correctly say that they happened at the same time.

Meanwhile, there is an observer sitting in the exact midpoint of the train. From her perspective, the light from the two strikes also has to travel equal distances. She will therefore measure the speed of light to be the same in either direction.

However, as the train is moving, light from the lighting that struck the rear must travel more to catch up and will be slower to reach than the light from the front. This causes the observer inside the train to conclude that lightning struck the front of the train first rather than simultaneously. Einstein says that simultaneity is relative.

These new ideas were published in a paper titled On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies.

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Einstein too had an annus mirabilis like Newton. In 1905, Einstein published four scientific papers in the German journal Annalen der Physik. These four papers laid the foundation of modern physics by revolutionizing how the scientific community perceived fundamental concepts of space, time, mass, and energy. As all four papers were published in 1905, this year is considered Einstein’s annus mirabilis or miracle year.

The first paper introduced the revolutionary idea that light is composed of both energy and particles. The foundation for quantum physics that physical systems can behave both as waves (energy) and as particles (matter) began here.

The second paper, though without any revolutionary concepts, was important in its own right. Einstein discovered the empirical evidence behind Brownian Motion which refers to the random movement displayed by small particles that are suspended in fluids. Though many scientists had accepted this already, empirical evidence had been lacking.

The third paper which contained the special theory of relativity possibly had the most ground-breaking content among all four papers.

The last of these papers published on 21 November 1905 had the mathematical confirmation of the Special Theory of Relativity, the most famous equation: E=mc2.

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Following his graduation in 1900, Einstein spent 2 years looking for a teaching job. Though he wrote to different universities, he was not able to impress anyone sufficiently to land a job as a teacher. Meanwhile three of his fellow students became assistants at the university in Zurich. In 1902, while he had been still writing to universities, Einstein took the job of assistant examiner in the patent office.

In his new job, Einstein evaluated patent applications for devices such as a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. He became a permanent employee of the Swiss Patent Office in 1903.

The job was a lowly one for a man of Einstein’s intellect but he thoroughly enjoyed working with the technical and mechanical ideas of various inventors. He later described it as his best time. The job also did not take too much effort, and he could pursue his own interests along with it.

While working at the patent office Einstein developed his work in special relativity and other areas of physics which later made him famous.

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From the age of 12 to 14, Einstein mastered integral and differential calculus by himself. As he showed immense interest and aptitude for maths and science, his father thought he should become an engineer. And Zurich Polytechnic (now Federal Institute of Technology, Switzerland) seemed like the best place to go for this. It had been one of the best scientific schools in Europe. Einstein went to Zurich to write the entrance exam. He performed well in science and maths but failed the foreign language section.

Einstein took the advice of the polytechnic school’s principal and joined the Old Cantonal School in Aarau, Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to finish his secondary schooling. In January 1896 Einstein gave up his citizenship in the German Kingdom of Wurttemberg to avoid military service. This was done with the approval of his father. In September 1896 he cleared the Swiss Matura exam with good marks. He scored the highest grade in science and mathematics.

Thus, Einstein became a student of the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program in the Zurich Polytechnic School at the age of 17.

In 1894, Hermann and Jakob’s company lost a bid to supply electrical lighting to Munich city. This was because they didn’t have enough funds to convert their equipment from direct current (DC) to the more efficient alternating current (AC). Without the deal, they were forced to sell their factory in Munich and move to Italy in search of business. They first moved to Milan and then to Pavia. However, Einstein stayed back in Munich to complete his education at Luitpold Gymnasium.

He found it more difficult to cope with school after his family moved away. His attitude was so negative that a teacher suggested he leave. The teacher said that Albert’s presence adversely affected the other students. In December 1894 Einstein left the school and went to Pavia.

While in Italy, he penned the essay On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field. Einstein had always excelled in mathematics and physics and reached mathematical levels years ahead of his peers. At the age of twelve, Einstein had already discovered his own original proof of the Pythagorean Theorem and learned algebra and Euclidean geometry on his own.

A young medical student by the name Max Talmud was an informal tutor who introduced Einstein to higher mathematics and philosophy.

Talmud often had dinner in Einstein’s home and shared several books with him. Einstein loved reading these books and also discussed philosophical matters with Talmud. Quickly grasping the contents of the books, Einstein was soon baffling Talmud with his questions.

Once when Talmud gave 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, he finished the entire book in a surprisingly short time. His mathematical genius was such that Talmud soon found himself unable to catch up.

A turning point in Einstein’s life was when he was 16. Talmud had introduced him to a children’s science series by Aaron Bernstein titled Naturwis-senschaftliche Volksbucher (popular Books on Physical Science). In the series, the author imagined himself travelling along-side the electricity coursing through a telegraph wire.

The question this image raised in young Einstein’s mind dominated his thoughts for the next decade. What would a beam of light look like if someone ran alongside it? A light beam should appear stationary if it was a wave. But even as a child he realized that stationary light waves haven’t been seen. This remained a paradox he tried to solve.

 

Einstein studied in a strict Catholic primary school where the students wore military type uniforms. Einstein was generally bored by the classes. Though he excelled in certain subjects like mathematics and Latin, his performance in other subjects was poor. Einstein’s teachers considered him to be a dreamy, absentminded child.

However, Jakob Einstein, Albert’s uncle discovered the boy’s latent brilliance when Albert was able to give his own mathematical proof of the Pythagorean Theorem. (Pythagoras was a Greek mathematician who lived in the 6th century BC.)

Albert’s parents encouraged him to ask questions and gave him many books to read. Eager to learn more, Albert taught himself advanced maths.

In 1894, Einstein began attending a secondary school at Munich’s Luitpold Gymnasium. The new school turned out to be stricter than his primary school.        

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Einstein’s mother bought a violin and hired a music teacher to give him lessons when he was six years old. Though he was not too eager to attend classes in the beginning, he soon came to love playing the violin. Einstein and his mother would play duets with her accompanying him on the piano.

His love for music stayed with him throughout his life. Einstein was often seen carrying his violin case during his time at Princeton. He would solve complex mathematical problems in his head while improvising on the violin he nicknamed Lina. Playing his violin alone or with others gave Einstein great pleasure and relaxation. He resolved many problems in his personal life and science by taking refuge in music.

Einstein was born on March 14, 1879, in Ulm, Wurttemberg, Germany. Though his parents were Jews they were not religious. This could have been a matter of survival in Germany at the time. Until a few years before Einstein’s birth, Jews were not even considered German citizens. Albert’s father Hermann Einstein had been a salesman and an engineer. Hermann and his brother started Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie, an electrical equipment manufacturing company based in Munich. Meanwhile, Einstein’s mother Pauline Koch ran the household.

The Einstein family shifted to Munich when Albert was a year old. Little Albert started speaking only at the age of three. He had a sister, Maja, two years younger to him. Maja recollects Albert’s intense concentration while building multiple-storied card houses.

Einstein mentions two events as having immense impact on his early years. The first was at the age of 5, when he saw a compass. He was puzzled to hear that some invisible forces could make the compass needle always point north. This marked the beginning of his lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second event was his introduction to geometry at the age of 12.

Albert Einstein is considered to be one of the most influential persons of the 20th century. His thoughts on space, time, motion and energy revealed new trajectories to the world.

Astronomers use his work till day to study everything from gravitational waves to Mercury’s orbit. His contribution also extends to the philosophy of science.

Einstein’s formula on mass - energy equivalence, E=mc2(square) has been called the world’s most famous equation. Even those unfamiliar with the underlying physics know about this equation.

In 1921 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for the law of the photoelectric effect. His theory of general relativity gives an explanation of gravity while the law of photoelectric effect explains the behaviour of electrons in certain conditions.

Einstein’s theories and discoveries marked a turning point in the development of quantum theory and influenced the development of atomic energy.

The ‘theory of everything’ was a single theory under which Einstein tried to unify all the forces of the universe. He worked on this unified field theory, though unsuccessfully, till the time of his death.

Einstein’s insight and inquisitiveness made him the most influential physicist of the 20th century.

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Newton’s contributions to science are truly staggering. In a foreword to a twentieth century edition of Newtons Opticks, Albert Einstein wrote:

“Nature was to him an open book, whose letters he could read without effort… In one person, he combined the experimenter, the theorist, the mechanic and, not least, the artist in exposition. He stands before us strong, certain and alone; his joy in creation and his minute precision are evident in every word and every figure.”

Newton summarized his achievements in these words: “I do not know what I may appear to the world, but to myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me...”

Sir Isaac Newton led an active life until his old age when age-related afflictions became a barrier. As he experienced inconsistencies due to weakness in the bladder, he was forced to limit his movements and follow dietary restrictions.

He became ill with gout in 1725 and suffered haemorrhoids the next year. In the months prior to his death, Newton was ill and bedridden. He lost consciousness on 19 March 1727 due to pain from his bladder stone and never regained consciousness. Newton passed away on 31 March 1727 at the age of 84. He was buried in London’s Westminster Abbey on April 4, to rest among the kings and queens, dukes and earls of England.

Isaac Newton’s pallbearers included two dukes, three earls and the Lord Chancellor. Voltaire described Newton’s funeral as the funeral of a king who had done well by his subjects.

In the last years of his life, Newton’s circle of friends included Prince George (later George II) and his wife Caroline, whom he visited regularly. He was successful, famous and wealthy by the time he died. Newton is said to have helped his extended family generously and was a charitable person. As he had never married, his estate went to the descendants of his stepfather, Barnabas Smith.

His papers were given to his half-niece Catherine Barton and her husband John Conduitt.

Alchemy is a proto-science which studies, among other things, the possible methods to transform base metals such as lead and copper into silver or gold. Alchemy also involves the search for the cure for diseases and a way to extend life.

Alchemy is shrouded in mystery and secrecy. Newton has been considered as a credulous alchemist by many. He had even described a recipe for the Philosopher’s Stone in one of his manuscripts. Philosopher’s Stone is said to have the ability to turn base metals into silver and gold and had magical properties and could even help humans achieve immortality.

Newton’s belief that he had discovered a blueprint for the Philosopher’s Stone was rather surprising, considering his status as a serious and empirical scientist.

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Despite his success as a scientist, Newton was at first largely inactive in the political arena. Later, he became the Member of Parliament, representing Cambridge University from 1689 to 1690. This had been the period when the Parliament enacted the Bill of Rights, which limited the power of the monarchy and laid out the rights of Parliament and individuals. However, Newton was anything but an active parliamentarian. He reportedly spoke just once and that had been to ask an usher to close a window on a chilly day!

Despite his lacklustre contributions as a parliamentarian, he became acquainted with many influential individuals including King William III and philosopher John Locke, during his time in London. Newton served a second term in the parliament from 1701 to 1702 but this time too his participation in the proceedings of Parliament was minimal.

In 1705, he was knighted by Queen Anne for his contributions to science and public service. The event was held at a lavish ceremony at Trinity College. Newton became the first scientist to be given this honour.

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Among all the duties Newton had at the Royal Mint, the most impossible one was testing the purity and accuracy of coins. The coins had to be of the correct weight and fineness, with only the least difference from each other.

The task of determining whether each coin was identical to the other, turned out to be a tedious one. However, Newton’s scientific training came in useful to tackle this job.

Newton visited the pressing plant next to his office at the Royal Mint every day. Workmen would take out a small sample of the molten metal using ladles designed for this purpose. The sample would be taken back to the warden’s laboratory where he conducted chemical experiments on the metal to verify if it met the required standards of purity.

Newton claimed that he had brought the coinage to a much greater degree of exactness than ever before. Naturally, he reacted angrily when a judgment by the jury in the Trial of the Pyx in 1710 declared that the gold coins were substandard. (The Trial of the Pyx is a procedure in which the integrity of the coinage of England was tested.)