My Science School

               Spanish settlements raked in much wealth by digging for gold in Mexico, and silver in Peru. The natives were completely dominated by the Spaniards, and were forced into slavery. They had to do gruelling work day and night in the gold and silver mines. Every bit of the gold and silver they unearthed was shipped back to Spain in regular convoys of galleons from the Americas. The monopoly of Spain in this field was greatly envied by other nations such as England, France and Holland.

               Spain created two viceroyalties in the new world of America. The first in the Central America was New Spain, and the second, in South America, was Peru.

               After conquering the Aztecs, Hernan Cortes started working on the construction of Mexico City. He destroyed the Aztec temples and buildings. Soon the place became the most important European city in the Americas. All these new settlements strengthened Spanish authority in South America. Thus, Spain became a mighty sea power. 

               The Spanish colonization under the leadership of Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizzaro is often cited as one of the reasons behind the destruction of great civilizations like the Aztec and Inca.

               At the time of Cortes’ arrival, in Mexico, Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire was at the height of its splendour. In the palace of the Aztec king, Moctezuma, the Spaniards saw much gold and silver, and this intensified their greed.

               Cortes attacked the Aztec king. His men behaved so disgracefully towards the Aztecs that they raised in revolt. Soon, the Spaniards managed the destruction of Tenochtitlan. With the fall of the capital city, the Aztec civilization, with its staggering sophistication, especially in the field of engineering, was slowly destroyed.

              Then came the turn of the Incas. Just as the Aztec Empire fell, following the death of its king, the Inca Empire too, was doomed when its empire was captured by Francisco Pizzaro another Spaniard, and his followers. Thus by the end of 1533, the Inca Empire with all its skills had vanished.

               Even though the voyage of Hernan Cortes to Mexico is considered to be great, it is infamous in the pages of history, for the destruction of these two great civilizations. 

               Hernan Cortes was a Spanish conquistador and explorer. His expedition caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in the early 16th century. He claimed Mexico for Spain.

               Cortes was born in 1485 in the village of Medellin, Spain. He chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received a commission and, for a short time, became magistrate of the second Spanish town on the island. He joined an expedition to Cuba led by Diego Velazquez in 1511.

               In 1518, Cortes was to command his own expedition to Mexico, but Velazquez cancelled it. Cortes ignored the order. In 1519, Hernan Cortes left Cuba with about 600 men, and set out for the Yucatan region of Mexico. After reaching the land, Cortes executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous people against others.

               After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Cortes was awarded the title of Marques del Valle de Oaxaca. Herman Cortes returned to Spain, where he died in 1547.

 

               The King was unhappy with Jacques Cartier for abandoning the Roberval and the colonists. Cartier was personally disappointed about not finding the treasure in Canada as he had been ordered to. Jean-Francois de Roberval also returned from Canada, with no better results than Cartier.

               There was a huge disappointment at these fruitless attempts. After these setbacks, France didn’t show any interest in these new lands for half a century, and Cartier’s career as a state-funded explorer came to an end.

               He spent his remaining years attending to his business affairs at his estate near Saint Malo. He was guilty of disobeying orders and leaving Roberval to fend for himself in Canada.

               However, Cartier was credited with initiating French authority in Canada. Though it happened by accident, the fact that he named Canada was also recognized by the world. Without his expeditions, the French language would probably not have been spoken in Canada. And he opened up the greatest waterway for the European penetration of North America.

          In May of 1541, Cartier departed on his third voyage as the chief navigator. The goals now were to find the ‘Kingdom of Saguenay’ and its riches.

          A few months after he started, a group of colonists followed him, under the command of Jean-Francois de Roberval, whom the king titled the first lieutenant general of French Canada. Jacques Cartier made landfall on the present-day Cap-Rouge, Quebec. He built a fort there, and it became the first French settlement.

          They explored the land and collected quartz crystals and iron pyrites, which they thought were diamonds and gold. For many months, Cartier waited for the colonists. Finally, he left for France. He encountered the colonists along the Newfoundland coast. Despite Roberval’s insistence that he accompany him back to Saguenay Cartier sailed back to France, still convinced his vessels contained a wealth of gold and diamonds. He arrived at France in October. Only after returning to France did he realize that what he and his men had collected were not diamonds and gold. 

               Jacques Cartier set sail on a second voyage on May 19th, 1535 with three ships and one hundred men to Canada. Cartier’s instructions were to explore further inland, and to discover the riches rumoured to exist in the kingdoms of the newly explored land.

               Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence’s as far as Quebec and established a base near a native village.

               He learnt from the natives that there were two rivers leading further west to the interior. They went search of the rivers, and reached Sainte-Marie. Unfortunately, the river was blocked by rapids.

               Jacques Cartier’s fleet then started preparing for the winter, stacking food and firewood. Throughout the winter, the French fleet lay frozen solid at the mouth of the St. Charles River, under the Rock of Quebec. To add to their struggles, scurvy broke out, killing many crew members.

               In May 1536, Cartier decided to return to France. He took the chief of Donnacona, a native village, to France to narrate the tales about the ‘Kingdom of Saguenay’, said to be full of treasures.

               Thus, Jacques Cartier returned to France after long days of voyage.

          Jacques Cartier was a French explorer. He claimed what is now Canada for France. Jacques Cartier was the natural successor to Verrazzano.

          Cartier’s orders for his first expedition were to search for a passage to the Pacific Ocean in the area around Newfoundland, and possibly, find precious metals.

          He left Saint-Malo on 20th April 1534, and reached the coast of Newfoundland 20 days later. Jacques Cartier was the first European to map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River.

          Cartier also is credited with accidently naming Canada. The name ‘Canada’ comes from ‘kanata’, the indigenous word for ‘village’ or ‘settlement’. The indigenous people used the word to describe the village of Stadacona, present-day Quebec City which Cartier misinterpreted. Thus, Canada got its present name.

          During his second voyage, Jacques Cartier sailed up the Saint Lawrence River for the first time. The voyages by Cartier were undoubtedly great. 

            Giovanni da Verrazzano was an explorer who became the first European to sight New York and Narragansett Bay, while sailing across the Atlantic to explore the American coast and to try and discover a westerly passage to Asia.

            In March 1524, the explorer set out on a voyage in his ship La Dauphine. He reached Cape Fear on the Florida peninsula. From there Verrazzano sailed northwards exploring the eastern coast of North America.

            Giovanni Verrazzano made many discoveries during his voyage. The most significant one is the present day New York harbour. He is also credited with completing all the mapping of the east coast of America as he could piece together the north and south.

            Giovanni Verrazzano identified that North and South Americas were two separate continents and they were joined together by a narrow strip of land. Verrazzano returned to France on 8th July 1524.

            Verrazzano undertook two more voyages to the Americas. During the second voyage, he made landfall on the Lesser Antilles. He anchored his ship off one of the islands and when he went ashore, he was captured, and killed.

          After travelling three-quarters of the way around the globe, Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan was killed in Philippines. With the loss of their leader, the remaining crew voyaged back to Spain on board three ships, under the command of Juan Sebastian Elcano.

          Even though their deceased commander was Portuguese, the expedition sailed under the Spanish flag. Because of this, the fleet was fearful of confronting Portuguese ships on their way back. The Portuguese would show no mercy when they discovered the ships. The ships were therefore, forced to sail to the south of the main trade routes, so that they did not encounter Portuguese ships.

          On their way, because of manpower shortage, one of the ships was burnt. The crew then travelled in two ships: the Trinidad and the Victoria. The ship Trinidad was captured by the Portuguese. The Victoria, under the command of Juan Sebastian Elcano, arrived back in Spain in September 1522. 

            Magellan had to sail with the wind after entering the Pacific Ocean. It took many days to make landfall.

            The fleet ran out of food, and many crew members were affected by scurvy. However, they retained sufficient drinking water to stay alive.

            After overcoming many hurdles on the way, Ferdinand Magellan, finally sighted an island on the horizon. It was the Isle of Guam where Magellan made landfall and stocked up his food supplies.

            Later, they arrived on an island called Cebu, where Magellan befriended the local chieftain. The native chief in awe of Magellan’s superior ships and weapons, asked Ferdinand Magellan to attack his enemies on the nearby island of Mactan.

            Ferdinand Magellan agreed considering himself stronger. Unfortunately, his intuition misfired. The hero was brutally killed in that minor island skirmish.

            Ferdinand Magellan never completed the circumnavigation of the Earth. With the loss of Magellan, Juan Sebastian took control of the ship and sailed for Spain with the remaining crew. 

               Ferdinand Magellan accidentally discovered the Pacific Ocean. This is how it happened. Magellan’s ships went through a long passage which he called ‘All Saints’ Channel’ now named the Strait of Magellan. The Strait of Magellan, a navigable sea route, is the most important natural passage between the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.

               For thirty-eight days, and over 482 kilometres, Magellan’s ships battled day and night through the straits. After sailing through the dangerous straits, Magellan and his crew entered the Pacific Ocean with three ships. Thus, Magellan became the first European explorer to reach the Pacific.

               On first seeing the majestic ocean, Magellan was taken aback because it was so calm. He named it ‘the Pacific’, because of its pacifying stillness, and peacefulness.

               Magellan and his crew were the first Europeans to reach Tierra del Fuego just east of the Pacific side of the strait. 

          Columbus’s finding that the West Indies were near the coast of India was not convincing enough. Magellan believed that there was a western sea route to reach the Spice Islands. He wanted to go on a voyage to discover this sea route. He sought financial aid from the Portuguese King, but the King was intent on developing a route to the East around the Cape of Good Hope. He refused to give Magellan the support he needed.

          A vexed Magellan renounced his Portuguese citizenship. He relocated to Spain in 1518, and sought the help of the king of Spain.

          He got a positive nod from the king. Magellan intended to search for a passage around the south of  America into the Pacific Ocean.

          He was given the financial support he needed and also provided a fleet of five ships. But the Spanish king did not provide funds for the crew.

          This did not discourage Ferdinand Magellan. He recruited sailors by himself. 

               Magellan was greatly inspired by the adventurous voyages of Bartholomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama.

               Magellan was too young when Bartholomeu Dias returned from the Cape of Good Hope, but he was old enough to remember the successful arrival of Christopher Columbus from his first voyage. He was 19 years old when Vasco da Gama returned from his victorious voyage to India.

               The last decade of the fifteenth century, and the first decades of the following century witnessed many discoveries. In 1500, Pedro Alvarez Cabral discovered the east coast of Brazil. Later, Spanish explorer Vasco Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513.

               However, it became more evident, that a whole continent between Europe and Asia had not yet been discovered. Inspired by his predecessors, Ferdinand Magellan decided to follow the paths of the Portuguese explorers, and to make new discoveries of his own.

               Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage was proved successful as he discovered many new islands. Even though, Magellan faced an unfortunate death; his remaining crew circumnavigated the world. Hence, the voyages of Ferdinand Magellan are considered as some of the greatest voyages ever. 

               Magellan was born into a Portuguese noble family in 1480. His adventurous spirit led him to a career as an explorer. As the Portuguese king refused to finance Magellan’s expedition, he decided to offer his services to King Charles I of Spain, who agreed to finance him.

               Magellan’s expedition to the East Indies resulted in the first circumnavigation of the Earth, completed by Juan Sebastian Elcano. Magellan set out from Spain in 1519, with a fleet of five ships, to discover a western sea route to the Spice Islands. On the way, he discovered what is now known as the Strait of Magellan. He was the first European navigator to cross the Pacific Ocean.

               While voyaging through the Pacific Ocean, the fleet had to face many hurdles like storms, and lack of food.

               However, without being disheartened, they sailed further, and reached the Philippines. On 15th March, 1521, they headed to Suluan and dropped anchor for a few hours of respite. Suluan is a small island in the province of Eastern Samar. They then next dropped anchor at Homonhon, another small island in the province of Eastern Samar.

              On 27th April 1521, Magellan was killed in the Battle of Mactan.

               Cabral’s fleet set out from South America on 2nd May 1500, and sailed along the east coast of South America. On 5th May, the fleet veered eastwards towards Africa. A terrible storm hit the ships on 24th May, in South Atlantic. The fleet lost four ships, and the remaining ships were greatly damaged by the rough weather.

               On 26th May, the expedition reached Kilwa Kisiwani, where Cabral made an unsuccessful attempt to negotiate a treaty with its king. Further, on the way to India, they reached Malindi. Sailors were recruited from Malindi for the last leg to India. Later, they reached their destination, Calicut.

               After a few days, the expedition sailed to the Kingdom of Cochin, where Cabral befriended its ruler and collected so many varieties of spices and gems to take back home.

               Despite the loss of human lives and ships, the profit raked in by selling the rare spices was great. The voyage also helped in demonstrating the power of the Portuguese Empire to the whole world. Colonies were set up from Americas to the Far East.