My Science School

            James Cook’s third and last voyage was to find the North-West Passage around the American continent. The Passage which was supposed to open more convenient trade routes was believed to link the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.

            Cook commanded the HMS Resolution, while another Captain Charles Clerke, commanded the HMS Discovery. Cook travelled north, and in 1778, became the first European to explore the Hawaiian Islands. After making his initial landfall on the island Kauai, Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands, after the Earl of Sandwich, because at the time, the Earl was the acting First Lord of the Admiralty.

            Cook made his next landfall on what is today the Oregon coast. Then he sailed on to Vancouver Island and did trading with the natives. In a single visit, Cook charted the majority of the North American north-west coastline.

            By August 1778, Cook was through the Bering Strait, sailing into the Chukchi Sea. Later, he sailed further to reach Alaska, but couldn’t continue due to sea ice. Cook returned to Hawaii in 1779. Cook was killed in Kealakekua Bay on the Big Island of Hawaii on 14th February 1779, in a dispute with the natives.

 

               Captain Cook’s second voyage was to find out whether Terra Australis really existed or not.

               On his first voyage, he discovered the southeast coast of Australia. On the same trip, he also mapped them. However, the ‘hypothetical’ Terra Australis still remained an unsolved mystery. Shortly after his return from the first voyage, Cook was promoted to the rank of commander.

               Later he was commissioned for a second voyage. Cook commanded the HMS Resolution on this voyage. During this voyage, he became the first explorer to sail into the Antarctic Circle. He circumnavigated Antarctica at the very limits of the ice shelf. But he did not make a landfall on the mainland of Antarctica, as he had to sail towards Tahiti to resupply his ship.

               Cook visited Easter Island, the Marquesas, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and the Tonga Isles. Cook was able to find these comparatively smaller lands in the Pacific, and to map them. After sailing through all its likely locations, Cook confirmed that there was no land called Terra Australis.

               Thus, Cook became the first to officially prove that the existence of Terra Australis was a myth. 

            The main purpose of Captain James Cook’s first voyage was to observe the transit of Venus across the Sun. It was at the behest of the Royal Society.

            Captain Cook set on this expedition from England on 26th August 1768. Those on board included the astronomer Charles Green and botanist Joseph Banks.

            The expedition rounded Cape Horn, and arrived at Tahiti on 13th April 1769, where Charles Green observed the transit of Venus across the Sun.

            Captain Cook then reached the south-eastern coast of Australia. Thus, he became the first recorded European to explore the coastline of Australia.

            He made his first recorded direct observation of indigenous Australians. The fleet made its first landfall at Kurnell Peninsula. Cook called the land ‘Stingray Bay’, which was later, renamed the Botany Bay. However, on the return journey, Cook’s ship ran aground on a shoal of the Great Barrier Reef, and became badly damaged.

 

               James Cook or Captain Cook was a British navigator, who mapped much of the South Pacific. He made three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he became the first recorded European to explore the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands.

               James Cook was born on 7th November 1728 in Marton, United Kingdom. His father was a Scottish farmer. Cook did his schooling in the village school. Young Cook used to help his father with farm work. During his teenage days, Cook began to get lured to the sea. At the age of 17, Cook moved to the coast, settled in Whitby, and found work with a coal merchant. He worked in the North Sea coal trade for John Whitby, and he proved himself to be an exceptional sailor. In 1755, Cook enlisted in the Royal Navy. He served in North America where he learnt to survey and chart coastal waters.

               He was a very fine seaman, and an excellent commander. In 1768, the British admiralty sent out an expedition, choosing Cook as the commander.

               The expedition was to witness a rare event, visible only in the southern hemisphere -the transit of Venus across the Sun.

 

               After leaving New Zealand, Abel Tasman sailed towards the north.

               He made a landfall on the southernmost island of the Tonga group, named Tongatapu. He received a cordial welcome from the islanders, and enjoyed their good hospitality. The amiable natives stocked his ships with food and fresh water.

               Later, as he sailed further, Tasman discovered the Fiji Islands. Nearing Fiji, he had to encounter one of the greatest dangers of the Pacific islands. He had to get his ships off a coral reef, with sharp rocks, to make a landing.

               He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia before making his way back into the open sea. During the difficult return journey to his starting point at Batavia, he still made a few discoveries. He located two more islands, which he named New Britain and New Ireland. He had mapped everything in detail.

               Tasman’s voyage was absolutely remarkable. He had started and ended his voyage in Batavia, which was a tremendous advantage for him, compared to other European explorers. 

 

          Tasman was the first European explorer to sight New Zealand. This finding led to the discovery of an alternative route to Chile, South America, and Cape Horn.

          Tasman called New Zealand ‘Staten Landt’, meaning land of the State General. He was convinced that it stretched all the way to Cape Horn, and that it joined up with another land discovered earlier by his countrymen.

          While on his voyage, Abel Tasman sighted a landmass, which he thought as the great continent in the south. He made a landfall there.

          Unfortunately, the local population called ‘Maori’ came out to the shore with weapons raised to defend their territory. In the skirmish, four of Tasman’s men were killed. Hence, Tasman named the land ‘Murderers Bay’.

          Tasman left the place without exploring the land further and it was also one of the reasons why Tasman did not discover that New Zealand consisted of two islands. 

            Abel Janszoon Tasman was born at Lutjegast, near Groningen, in the Netherlands. He was the first known European explorer to reach the islands of Van Diemen’s Land, which is now known as Tasmania, and New Zealand. He was also the first to sight the Fiji Islands.

            In 1642, the Governor General of Batavia, Anthony Van Diemen, decided to send out an expedition to explore the South Seas. The main purpose of the voyage was to explore unknown lands, and to claim new discoveries. The second aim was to find a faster passage to reach Europe from Batavia by sailing. Abel Tasman was ordered to command the expedition.

            He set out on a voyage with two ships, and 110 men. At first he sailed through already explored routes. Then he voyaged into unknown waters. For many months, there was no sign of land.

            Finally, he came across a land which he called Van Dieman’s Land after the governor general of Batavia. This was later named as Tasmania.

            He stayed there for only 10 days but in that time, he managed to chart a fragment of the coastline.

 

                The Portuguese, Spanish and the English were the dominant navigational powers. During the 17th century the Dutch overthrew everyone else, and became the mightiest seafarers. They flourished in the spice trade. They even started a trading company called Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, abbreviated to VOC.

               They realized that the route around the Cape of Good Hope was more suitable to reach the Far East. They had a base on the island of Jakarta, which they called Batavia. By the 1620s the Dutch were well established in Indonesia.

               Later, there had been sightings of a land to the south. Many Dutch seafarers tried to locate the land. Willem Jansz, a Dutchman became the first European to discover Australia, but he remained unaware of his achievement.

               Later, Dirk Hartog made landfall on an island off the coast of Shark Bay, Western Australia. The island was later named the Dirk Hartog Island after him. But the Dutch made no claim to the land, and they made no attempt to colonize it unlike the other European explorers.

 

            Drake’s hostility towards the Spanish began in 1568. He was on an expedition and their fleet was anchored in a Spanish port in Mexico. Drake and his crew was negotiating to resupply and repair their ships. Meanwhile they were attacked by Spanish warships. He escaped from the attack. But he was vengeful towards the Spaniards from that day.

            For that reason, when he was commissioned to set out on a sail to attack Spanish colonies, he was very much happy and willing. Thus he went on his next expedition in 1585. He first attacked Vigo in Spain, and held the place for two weeks. He then attacked Santiago in the Cape Verde islands. While returning, he looted the Spanish fort of San Augustin in Spanish Florida.

            When he finally reached England, he received a hero’s welcome. Later in 1587, he went on another expedition. This time, Drake patrolled the Iberian coasts between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent. He also destroyed thirty seven naval ships, and attacked Spanish supply lines.

            He was promoted to vice-admiral in command of the English fleet on 1780. 

            In 1577, Francis Drake was secretly commissioned by Queen Elizabeth I to set out on an expedition, intended against the Spanish colonies on the American Pacific coast.

            He sailed with five ships. On the way, the ships were hit by a terrible storm. By the time he reached the Pacific Ocean in October 1578, only the flag-ship ‘Pelican’ survived. Drake became the first Englishman navigated the Straits of Magellan to reach the Pacific. He travelled up the west coast of South America. On the way he attacked Spanish ships and settlements for food and treasures. He continued north, and sailed further up the west coast of America than any European.

            During the voyage, he covered the Moluccas, Celebes, Java, and then round the Cape of Good Hope. He arrived back in England in September 1580.

            He brought back spices and Spanish treasures. Francis Drake gifted Queen Elizabeth I, a composite jewel token made with rare materials gathered from around the globe. This pleased the Queen very much. 

               Sir Francis Drake was a British explorer. He was born in Devon, as the eldest of the twelve sons of a farmer named Edmund Drake. Some problems made the Drake family flee from Devonshire to Kent. Young Francis first developed his seafaring skills on the river Medway.

               Francis Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition, from 1577 to 1580. He was the first to complete the voyage as the captain throughout the entire circumnavigation. Though Magellan was destined to captain the first voyage around the world, he cannot complete it as he was killed in the ‘Battle of Mactan’.

               Drake’s circumnavigation began in 1577, with five ships. They sailed to Brazil, and through the perilous Strait of Magellan. Then they sailed by Panama, where he attacked Spanish ships and settlements for food and treasures.

               With his entry into the Pacific Ocean, he claimed what is now California for England, and inaugurated an era of conflict with the Spanish on the coasts of the American continents.

               Drake’s exploits made him a hero to the English, but the Spanish branded him as a pirate. 

               Pedro Fernandes de Queiros was born in Portugal. He became a subject of the King of Spain when the two countries were dynastically united in 1580.

               After returning from his first expedition, which reached till Santa Cruz, he petitioned the king to send him on another expedition into the Pacific. In March 1603, Queiros was authorized to undertake another expedition to extend the Spanish dominions.

               While on this voyage, he cited an island that he called ‘Australia del Espiritu Santo’. He was hopeful that finally, he had found the much anticipated continent Terra Australis, but soon, he registered that there was no such continent.

               Queiros’ fleet ran out of supplies, and had to return. But on the way back, his ships were hit by a storm, and got separated from each other. The wind forced him to sail south of New Guinea. This was how he accidentally discovered the Straits of Torres, located between Cape York in Australia and the island of New Guinea. Though he did not ‘discover’ Australia, his findings proved that the great southern continent, if it existed was away from New Guinea. 

               Alvaro de Mendana’s failed attempt to discover the southern continent disappointed the Spanish Empire. But Mendana did not lose hope, and for many years he planned for another expedition. But his proposal got constantly rejected. Later, stories of many successful explorations around the globe made the Spanish rethink their decision.

               Twenty eight years after his first expedition, in 1595, Mendana was at last given command of a second expedition to the Solomon Islands. Pedro Fernandes de Queiros was assigned as his second-in-command. It was a much larger and costlier expedition, with 378 men, women and children.

               During his second voyage, Mendana discovered the Marquesas Island. The initially cordial relationship with the islanders deteriorated later, and Mendana and his men killed around 200 islanders before leaving the island.

               Later, the fleet created a settlement on Santa Cruz Island. The settlement did not survive for more than two months. It began to fall apart due to the outbreak of malaria and internal conflicts. Mendana himself died on 18th October 1595. Queiros took over the command, and he managed to get the ships back to Manila with a hundred famished survivors.

 

               Alvaro de Mendana, a Spanish navigator, was born in Congosto in El Bierzo Region. He was the nephew of Lope Garcia de Castro, viceroy of Peru.

               After discovering almost all the land masses around the globe, there was one left- the continent ‘Terra Australis’. Alvaro de Mendana is best known for the two voyages of discovery he led into the Pacific in search of Terra Australis.

               He set out on the first voyage on 20th November 1567 with two ships. The expedition did not sight land for many months.

               Later, on 7th February 1568, they reached an island, which they named the Solomon Islands. They named it after the wealthy biblical King Solomon, because they thought, mistakenly, that the island had great riches.

               The Solomon Islands were mountainous islands. Mendana was convinced that he was nearing the continent Terra Australis. He explored three neighbouring islands, which he named Guadalcanal, Malaita and San Cristobal. Gradually, Alvaro de Mendana realized that he had discovered an island group, and not a continent. And the Terra Australis was yet to explore. 

               Much of the Pacific Ocean wasn’t explored at the beginning of the 16th century. Magellan’s discovery of the strait that cuts through the southern tip of South America, connecting the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean, had motivated the Spanish to explore more of the Pacific Ocean.

               An expedition left Spain in 1525, under the command of Garcia de Loaisa. Their mission was to explore the Pacific Ocean from the Strait of Magellan.

               Unfortunately, with seven ships in the convoy, three did not make it through the passage and the rest became separated by the time they reached the Pacific. Only the ship named Victoria continued sailing.

               Miguel Lopez de Legazpi from New Spain arrived in the Philippines in 1564. Thus he claimed the wealthy island for Spain.

               The Spanish were slowly gaining understanding of the winds and currents of the Pacific. In 1668 the Spanish founded a colony on Guam as a resting place for west-bound galleons.

               For a long time this was the only non-coastal European settlement in the Pacific.