My Science School

 

At the centre of Europe lies Germany, with its neighbours Austria and Switzerland, and the “low countries” of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

Germany is flat and fertile in the north and heavily forested in the hills of the central and southern areas. It is a wealthy country, and an industrial leader, producing cars, electrical goods and chemicals for export all over the world.

The Alps rise in the south of Germany. Much of the area of Austria and Switzerland is taken up by Alpine peaks and valleys. These picturesque, prosperous countries also have modern industries.

The Netherlands is famous for its dairy goods and fields of flowers. Belgium is a land of two regions: the north, Dutch-speaking Flanders, is mostly level farmland, while the south, French-speaking Wallonia is hilly, wooded country.

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The Iberian Peninsula, divided between the countries of Spain and Portugal, is separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees Mountains. The core of the peninsula is a plateau called the Meseta, a landscape of plains crossed by several mountain ranges.

Spain has four official languages - Galician, Catalan, Basque as well as Spanish -and several dialects. The north of the country, Spain’s industrial heartland, is cooler and wetter. Central Spain is much drier. Large areas are barren or given over to rough pasture for sheep and goats. Tourist resorts have grown up along the Mediterranean coast. Andalucía is famous for bull-fighting, sherry, orange trees and flamenco dancers.

Portugal has long held close ties with the sea. Famous for its explorers, Portuguese sailors founded colonies in Africa, Asia and America more than 500 years ago. Today, farming and fishing are among the main industries - supplying the world with anchovies, sardines, shellfish, cork and port, a sweet wine produced in the region near Porto. Along the drier south coast is the Algarve, popular with tourists.

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Norway, Sweden and Denmark are together known as Scandinavia. Along with Finland and the volcanic island of Iceland, they form the Nordic countries. Some parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland lie within the Arctic Circle, where the sun never sets in high summer, but never rises in the depths of the long, cold winter.

Norway and Sweden are mountainous countries, while Finland and Denmark are low-lying. Finland is covered with dense coniferous forests and many lakes. In the past, glaciers have carved out the many inlets, or fjords, in Norway’s coastline.

The Nordic countries are prosperous and have low populations. They are important producers of timber, and are also world leaders in manufacturing. Denmark is also a farming country, with many dairy and pig farms.

The Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania used to be part of the former Soviet Union. Timber, fishing and farming are their most important industries.

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France shares borders with several other countries on its eastern side, but the north and west look on to the sea. In the south, the Pyrenees Mountains separate France from Spain, while the Alps form a border with Italy in the east. The Mediterranean Sea gives the south coast its warm climate and makes it a popular destination for tourists.

Much of France, especially in the north, is strongly agricultural. Many large rivers wind across fertile, undulating plains. France exports large quantities of food and wine, famous for its quality. It also has modern manufacturing and chemical industries. Nuclear power provides much of the country’s electricity supplies.

Most people in France are descended from ancient peoples including the Gauls, a Central European tribe, and the Franks, after whom the country is named. More recently, people from France’s former colonies in North Africa have made their homes in France.

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The British Isles includes the large islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and many smaller islands. England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland make up the United Kingdom. The rest of Ireland became independent in 1922. For many years conflict has divided the Catholic and Protestant people of Northern Ireland.

Mountains dominate the sparsely populated north of Scotland. Northern England and Wales also have large areas of uplands. Central and southern England are dense mix of farmland, towns and cities. Because of its mild, wet climate, Ireland is famous for its lush green landscape.

The United Kingdom was once dominated by heavy industries such as coal-mining and shipbuilding. Today, light industry such as plastics manufacture and electronics, as well as communications and financial services, have become important.

Once the hub of a worldwide empire, Britain still plays a leading role in international affairs. Its language, English, is spoken as a second language all over the world, and is dominant on the Internet and other areas of international communication.

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Europe is a dense patchwork of nations. The continent is actually part of a single land-mass that also includes Asia, but there are also a number of islands. A large part of Russia and a small part of Turkey are also included within Europe.

In the far north, Europe borders the Arctic Ocean. Frozen tundra merges into the vast coniferous forests of Russia and Scandinavia. The Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current, gives the northwestern countries a mild, wet climate. Central Europe and Russia have hot summers but cold winters. To the south, beyond the mountain ranges of the Pyrenees and the Alps, lie the sunny Mediterranean lands.

Europe is, for the most part, densely populated. Waterways and road and rail networks link its major cities. Much of its land is under cultivation or pasture. Only a few large areas of uninhabited land remain in the north.

Compared to other parts of the world, European countries are wealthy, though the West is generally more prosperous. Through history, conflicts have flared between and within countries. Several have split into smaller, independent nations in recent years.

People who originate from many different parts of the world now live in Europe. Countries such as England, France and Spain once ruled much of America, Africa and Asia. Many people from these continents have now settled in Europe, giving it a rich variety of cultures.

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Venezuela, the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana) and Brazil are rich in natural resources such as oil, bauxite, silver and other minerals. Brazil also produces coffee, sugar and fruit for export, while Guyana has large sugar plantations. Despite these resources, there is a great contrast in the distribution of wealth. A few people are very rich, while others live in poverty. The towns and cities are densely populated with people looking for work. Clusters of poor housing known as shantytowns, built from whatever materials can be found, sprawl around the edges of cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo.

The northern Andean countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia are also rich in minerals. Fertile farming land is scarce, so farmers have cut terraces into the hillsides to form level fields. Cotton, sugarcane, coffee and bananas are grown in the warm lowlands, while cereals and potatoes grow in higher, cooler regions. Economic problems and political unrest have caused poverty in these countries.

Further south is the long, narrow country of Chile. Mining, especially copper, is very important in the Andes Mountains, while the valleys are fertile, producing cereals, fruits and vines. East of the Andes are the open grasslands, known as pampas, of Argentina and Uruguay. Here, millions of cattle and sheep graze on vast ranches. They are exported for their meat and wool. Chile, Uruguay and Argentina all have modern cities and a high standard of living.

The Gran Chaco, a dry, scrubland plain, covers much of northwest Paraguay. Cattle are farmed and cotton grown in the more fertile south and east. Paraguay has the world’s largest hydro-electric project, the Itapúa Dam on the Parana River.

South America is a continent of extremes. The world’s longest mountain range, the Andes, stretches along the west coast. Between the snow-capped mountains lies a high, cold and windswept plain called the altiplano. Between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean coast is the Atacama Desert, the driest place on earth. Rain may not fall here for hundreds of years at a time.

In the north, most people live near the Caribbean coast or in the mountains. Further inland, the vast rainforests of the Amazon basin dominate. The Amazon River originates in the Andes and winds its way eastwards through Peru and Brazil before reaching the Atlantic Ocean.

To the east of the Amazon rainforest lie the Brazilian Highlands. Further south are wide areas of fertile grasslands, known as pampas, which cover parts of Argentina and Uruguay. In the extreme south of Argentina, grasslands give way to the dry, bleak scrublands of Patagonia. The southern Andes is an region of glaciers and volcanoes, breaking up into bleak, rocky islands at its tip.

Many people in South America are descended from Europeans, especially the Spanish and Portuguese, who began to arrive during the 15th century. Most South American people today still speak these languages. Others are descendents of African slaves brought over by the Europeans. The numbers of native peoples of South America fell dramatically after the arrival of the Europeans, but some still live in the mountains and the rainforest, keeping their own languages and traditions.

AMAZON RAINFOREST

The Amazon basin is the largest area of rainforest in the world. Many kinds of plants and animals live there, and new species are constantly being discovered. The mighty Amazon River and its tributaries flow through the forest, providing a vital transport route and source of food for the native peoples who live in forest villages. A few of these peoples still follow a traditional way of life, hunting, fishing and growing crops. Many also take advantage of modern technology, such as engines for their boats.

Today, the rainforest is disappearing at an alarming rate, because of logging for the timber industry, road-building, and clearing space for cattle farming or crop planting. The poor-quality rainforest soil means that it cannot support grazing or crops for long before the farmers must move on to new areas. So even more of the forest is lost.

Mexico and the countries that make up Central America form a link between North and South America. Mexico is a mountainous country, with desert in the north, tropical forest in the south and a central plateau of fertile land. Its cities suffer from overcrowding and pollution.

Central America is a mainly agricultural area. Bananas and coffee are grown, and cattle are raised. There is a constant threat of volcanoes, earthquakes and hurricanes.

The first European settlers of this region were Spanish. They controlled the land for hundreds of years. Most Mexicans and Central Americans speak Spanish today.

CARIBBEAN ISLANDS

The beautiful islands of the Caribbean are popular tourist resorts. They also export crops such as sugar, bananas and coffee. Volcanic eruptions and frequent hurricanes are a constant threat to the islanders. Many Caribbean people are descended from black African slaves. Their cultures are a mixture of African and European traditions.

Although larger in size than the USA, Canada has a much smaller population than its neighbour. Most of the country is covered with vast coniferous forests, mountains and lakes, where bears, wolves, cougars and moose are abundant. In the far north, and on the Arctic islands, the ground is permanently frozen. On this barren land, known as the tundra, plants grow only in the short summer.

Some native peoples, including the Inuit, live in the icy northern territories, but most Canadians live in the south, near the border with the USA. The largest cities are located in the east. Further west, in the provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, lies a wide expanse of fertile, low-lying land known as the Great Plains, or prairies, where most of Canada’s wheat crop is grown. The western part of Canada is dominated by mountain ranges, including the Rocky Mountains, which stretch on south across the USA.

In the 16th century, the first European settlers arrived in Canada from both France and Great Britain. French and English are still the official languages spoken today. Most French-speaking Canadians live in the province of Quebec, and many wish to see it declared a separate country.

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The United States of America stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. Numbered among its 50 states are Alaska, which lies to the northwest of Canada, and the Pacific islands of Hawaii.

Running down the northeastern side of the USA are the densely-forested Appalachian Mountains. To their northwest lie the Great Lakes, vast inland seas that were gouged out by glaciers during the Ice Ages and filled by their melt-waters. To the east lie the coastal lowlands, where great cities such as New York, Boston and Washington have grown up.

Covering the central belt of the USA is a vast, flat area of farmland. In the northern part, crops such as wheat and maize are grown, while cotton, tobacco and nuts are cultivated further south. The vast Mississippi River cuts through several of the Midwestern states, dividing the USA in two.

West of the high Rocky Mountains, the climate is drier, and the landscape more rugged. Wide areas of hot desert stretch across the southwestern states of Nevada and Arizona. Near the west coast, the climate becomes milder. Rich farmland nestles among the mountain ranges of California and the northwestern states.

Before the first settlers arrived from Europe, the Native Americans were the only inhabitants of the USA. Today, Americans can trace their ancestors from all parts of the world. Many black Americans are the descendents of slaves brought over from Africa in the 17th and 18th centuries.

North America includes Canada, the United States of America, Mexico, Central America and the Caribbean islands, as well as the largest island in the world, Greenland. In the sparsely populated north, the thick Arctic ice gives way to the barren tundra of northern Canada. The Rocky Mountains run down from Alaska to Mexico, while the forested Appalachians dominate the eastern USA. In the fertile lowlands of the Mississippi basin and the eastern seaboard, farms produce huge amounts of crops such as maize and wheat. Further south are the hot, dry deserts of southwestern USA and Mexico.

            Most people in North America are descendants of settlers from other parts of the world, the first of whom, the Europeans, arrived in the 16th century. Many Native American peoples lost their lands and their lives to the new arrivals. Today, the small groups of Native Americans that remain have their own territories. Many, especially the Inuit of northern Canada, still follow a traditional way of life.

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