My Science School

A geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, along with weather and landscape, work together to form a sphere of life is known as an ecosystem. Ecosystems thus contain biotic or living parts like plants, animals and other organisms as well as abiotic factors like temperature, humidity and rocks. The interdependence of these various parts and factors. either directly or indirectly, is what makes ecosystems thrive.

Ecosystems are controlled by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate, parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of an ecosystem but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Internal factors are controlled, for example, by decomposition, root competition, shading, disturbance, succession, and the types of species present. While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors. Therefore, internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them.

Ecosystems are dynamic entities—they are subject to periodic disturbances and are always in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. The tendency of an ecosystem to remain close to its equilibrium state, despite that disturbance, is termed its resistance. The capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize while undergoing change so as to retain essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks is termed its ecological resilience. Ecosystems can be studied through a variety of approaches—theoretical studies, studies monitoring specific ecosystems over long periods of time, those that look at differences between ecosystems to elucidate how they work and direct manipulative experimentation. Biomes are general classes or categories of ecosystems. However, there is no clear distinction between biomes and ecosystems. Ecosystem classifications are specific kinds of ecological classifications that consider all four elements of the definition of ecosystems: a biotic component, an abiotic complex, the interactions between and within them, and the physical space they occupy.

Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend. Ecosystem goods include the "tangible, material products" of ecosystem processes such as water, food, fuel, construction material, and medicinal plants. Ecosystem services, on the other hand, are generally "improvements in the condition or location of things of value". These include things like the maintenance of hydrological cycles, cleaning air and water, the maintenance of oxygen in the atmosphere, crop pollination and even things like beauty, inspiration and opportunities for research. Many ecosystems become degraded through human impacts, such as soil loss, air and water pollution, habitat fragmentation, water diversion, fire suppression, and introduced species and invasive species. These threats can lead to abrupt transformation of the ecosystem or to gradual disruption of biotic processes and degradation of abiotic conditions of the ecosystem. Once the original ecosystem has lost its defining features, it is considered "collapsed". Ecosystem restoration can contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals.

Credit : Wikipedia 

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Biodiversity is the name we give to the variety of all life on Earth. Bacteria to baboons, plants to people - the range of life on our planet is incredible.

All living things exist within their own communities, or ecosystems - oceans, forests, deserts, ice caps and even cities. All this put together is biodiversity: the volume of life on Earth as well as how different species interact with each other and with the physical world around them.

The word biodiversity is a contraction of 'biological diversity'. The concept is broad and complex, but that complexity is what makes Earth a perfect place for humans to live.

Biodiversity and species richness

When we talk about biodiversity, we often talk about species richness as well. Species richness is the number of different species in an area, a way of measuring biodiversity.

Studying species richness helps us to understand the differences between places and areas.

For example, the Amazon rainforest very species-rich as it is home to 10 million species. In contrast, the Sahara Desert is far less rich, with just a few thousand species.

About 1.5 million species have been described by scientists, and most of them are insects. But it is thought that there are millions more sharing our planet with us.

Endangered species and mass extinction

Overall biodiversity loss can speed up extinction. More and more animals and plants are facing an uncertain future.

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the global authority on the status of the natural world. It keeps a Red List of endangered species, an important indicator of the health of the world's biodiversity.

Currently, more than 30,000 species are listed as threatened with extinction, which is 27% of all assessed species.

We know that millions of species have already gone extinct over the long history of planet Earth. Biodiversity rates have always ebbed and flowed. In fact, at least 99% of all the organisms that have ever lived are now extinct. Researchers agree that five huge mass extinction events have already happened, including the one that wiped out the dinosaurs 66 million years ago.

However, extinction rates have been accelerating as human populations continue to grow, and many scientists argue we are living through a sixth mass extinction. This time, humans rather than natural events are to blame. Species diversity in more than half of land ecosystems is now critically low.

A 20% drop is widely considered the threshold at which biodiversity's contribution to ecosystem services is compromised. It's estimated that over a quarter of Earth's land surface has already exceeded this.

Causes of biodiversity loss

Biodiversity is in trouble in the UK and across the globe, and its loss can refer to local and worldwide extinctions. Species and ecosystems can be fragile, so small changes can have large consequences.

The causes of biodiversity loss are complicated, but we know the human population is making the problems worse.

In the short time humans have been on the planet we have increasingly disrupted the balance of biodiversity through changing land use, overexploitation of resources and the impact we are having on climate.

We are converting natural habitats into farms, factories, roads and cities. In the ocean, we are overfishing, drilling and mining.

Cities and towns have a smoothing effect on biodiversity, tending to favour generalist species like feral pigeons. Those that require a particular habitat, or are intolerant of disturbance or pollution, often can't survive. This is called biotic homogenization.

Animals and plants that can only live in one small area of land - like unique butterflies or flowers - can go locally extinct if the city's conditions are unfavorable to them.

A lichen specimen held in the crypt herbarium at the Museum. All living things, including plants and fungi, are represented by the word 'biodiversity'.

Credit : Natural history museum 

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The word biodegradable, used in conjunction with a substance or object, denotes the capability of being decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms and thereby avoiding pollution. While this adjective describes things that can be broken down into basic substances through natural environmental techniques, the products it is used along with can vary greatly in the time they take to break down. For instance, while a loaf of bread requires only a couple of weeks. a piece of paper might need months and a biodegradable plastic carton could take even years to break down.

Some items are obviously biodegradable. Examples include food scraps and wood that hasn't been treated with chemicals to resist bugs and rot. Many other items, such as paper, also biodegrade relatively easily. Some products will biodegrade eventually, but it may take years. This includes steel products, which eventually will rust through and disintegrate, and some plastics.

However, conditions are important to encourage biodegradability. Products that will biodegrade in nature or in home compost heaps may not biodegrade in landfills, where there's not enough bacteria, light, and water to move the process along.

Many organic companies use biodegradable packaging for products or produce organic biodegradable products, but the items may not be as biodegradable as customers think. To make matters more confusing, many items are labeled as "compostable."

Compostable products are all biodegradable, but they are specifically intended for a composting environment. In the right setting, these products break down even more quickly, usually within 90 days, and they leave behind a nutrient-rich organic material called humus, which creates a healthy soil environment for new plant growth.1

Whether an item is compostable or simply biodegradable, it needs to be placed in an environment that facilitates its breakdown. Compostable products require composting environments. But, even some biodegradable items need to be degraded in a controlled composting environment or facility—and very few of these facilities exist in the United States. These large facilities are designed to keep materials at 140 degrees Fahrenheit for 10 consecutive days.

For example, PLA, a popular biodegradable material for green companies, will only decompose into carbon dioxide and water in a controlled composting environment, not in a backyard composting arrangement, according to standards developed by the Biodegradable Products Institute.

With all of these variables, business owners need to communicate clearly with their customers about what they mean when they say "biodegradable." Even better are those businesses that take it a step further and educate their customers about how to properly dispose of their products.

Credit : The balance small business 

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A broad term that includes all forms of precipitation with acidic components like sulphuric acid or nitric acid, acid rain, or acid deposition, falls to the ground in wet or dry forms from the atmosphere. When sulphur dioxide or nitrous oxides emitted into the atmosphere react with Oxygen, water and other chemicals it forms acids, which then further mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground as rain, hail, snow, fog, or even acidic dust.

What are the effects of acid rain?

The ecological consequences of acid rain are seen most strongly in marine habitats, such as streams, lakes and marshes where fish and other wildlife can be toxic. Acidic rainwater can leach aluminium from soil clay particles as it flows through the soil and then floods into streams and lakes.

What will happen if we don’t stop acid rain?

Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide are the principal chemicals for acid rain. It can also influence humans since the acid goes into fruits, vegetables and animals. In other words, we can get really sick if acid rain doesn’t stop, and we eat those things. In general, acid rain affects men, but not directly.

What is acid rain? What are its harmful effects?

It has been shown that acid rain has detrimental effects on trees, freshwaters and soils, destroys insects and aquatic life-forms, causes paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and sculptures, as well as impacts on human health.

What are three ways to reduce acid rain?

Alternative energy sources should be used, such as solar and wind power. Renewable sources of energy are helping to reduce acid rain, as they produce much fewer emissions. There are other electricity sources as well, such as nuclear power, hydropower, and geothermal energy. Among these, the most extensive use is among nuclear and hydropower.

How does acid rain affect plants?

Acid rain can affect the health of plants. Acid rain changes the pH of the land where the plant is growing, thereby affecting the overall growth of the plants. Moreover, it binds or dissolves essential soil minerals such as nitrogen and phosphorus and carries them away.

What is acid rain made of?

Acid rain comprises highly acidic water droplets due to air emissions, specifically the disproportionate levels of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emitted by vehicles and manufacturing processes. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine with water molecules to form sulphuric and nitric acid.

What is the primary source of acid rain?

The power plants primarily cause acid rain. It releases most of the sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide while burning fossil fuels. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine with water molecules to form sulphuric and nitric acid causing acid rain.

Can acid rain damage buildings?

Yes, acid rain harms buildings. It strips away the materials and corrodes the metals of the buildings. Example: Tarnishing of Taj Mahal.

Can acid rain burn your skin?

No, acid rain can not burn the skin.

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Forest bathing, better known as Shinrin Yoku in Japanese culture, is the practice of walking in the woods mindfully. In 1982, the Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries created the term shinrin-yoku, which translates to “forest bathing” or “absorbing the forest atmosphere.” The practice encourages people to simply spend time in nature — no actual bathing required.

Anasuya Menon

Have you walked in a forest? Under the towering trees, with sunlight streaming down in thick long columns? Have you listened to the song of the birds or the sounds of a gurgling stream? Have you felt and probably smelt the fresh forest air? If you have done all of the above, you have forest bathed.

'Forest bathing' is nothing but. a mindful walk in the woods. The practice has its origins in Japanese culture, where it is called shinrin-yoku. The idea is to take in the forest through the senses. Being in the midst of nature refreshes the mind, energises and rejuvenates the body, says practitioners of forest bathing.

Re-connecting with nature

 The concept has caught on in India, especially in the past few years with nature groups organising forest-bathing tours to help people reconnect with nature. "Forest bathing is not activity-oriented. It is a contemplative process, where the participants are guided to take in the forest through their senses. As a guide, I only help participants experience the energy of the forest," says Dipika Sharma from Noida, who has been conducting forest bathing walks for groups in Delhi since 2019. "People are now increasingly aware of the therapeutic effect of nature especially after two years of being confined at home because of the pandemic," says Dipika, who founded Forest Therapy, an organisation that conducts forest bathing tours.

Introducing children to forest bathing would help them form a lasting bond with nature, says Verhaen Khanna, commercial pilot-turned environmental activist, who has been conducting forest bathing workshops for school and college students.

"When children are out in the wild, their instincts are most alive. It instills a sense of curiosity in them. While on these walks, children usually ask me a lot of questions about the sights, smells and sounds of the forest. At times, it might be about a strange insect they have seen or it could be about a sound they heard. They become very aware of their surroundings," says Verhaen. Being amid trees is also believed to boost immunity, says Verhaen, whose organisation, New Delhi Nature Society organises a variety of programmes for children starting from listening to birds to creating art, planting trees, mediation, tree climbing, yoga in the park and saving trees. "We have children as young as four years of age taking part. I have seen that children enjoy the time in the wilderness," says Verhaen. The most receptive are children in the four to seven age group. "They are very attentive. They are curious about snakes and spiders. We ensure their safety, of course," he adds.

The basic idea is to help children appreciate nature and understand how important it is to to be able to co-exist with nature. "We are also, in a way, helping them create memories. And the experience of a forest will stay with them for a long time," Verhaen says.

In addition to building a bond with nature, children also develop their personalities by learning how to interact with others in the group.

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Julia Lorraine Hill (known as Julia Butterfly Hill, born February 18, 1974) is an American environmental activist and tax redirection advocate. She is best known for having lived in a 180-foot (55 m)-tall, roughly 1500-year-old California redwood tree for 738 days between December 10, 1997 and December 18, 1999.

When Julia Lorraine Hill was seven years old, a butterfly landed on her finger during a hike with her family in Arkansas, USA. Amazingly, it stayed there for the rest of the hike, earning her the nickname 'Butterfly'.

At age 22, Julia was in a near-fatal car accident. The crash changed her life. She decided to become an eco-warrior.

Hill climbs Luna

Julia joined the movement to preserve the redwood forest in Humboldt County, California. Hundreds of the massive, ancient redwood trees were marked for cutting down by the Pacific Lumber Company. Several activists prevented the loggers from chopping the trees by climbing them and staying put for a few hours, sometimes a few days. Julia chose a 55-m-tall redwood that was almost 1500 years old and climbed it on December 10, 1997. She called it Luna because she had ascended it on a moonlit night.

Though she hadn't planned on it, the days turned into weeks. Soon, the 24-year-old had spent 42 days atop Luna, longer than anyone else! Volunteers from Earth First! and other organisations helped her build a covered shelter on top of the tree.

Succeeds finally

During her 738-day vigil, the logging company subjected Julia to loud horns and blinding lights. They flew helicopters so close that she was buffeted by strong winds from the rotors. She also lived through one of the worst winters in California history. However, Julia stuck firm. She only came down on December 18, 1999, when the company agreed to preserve Luna and create a three-acre buffer zone around itJulia wrote a memoir called The Legacy of Luna and continued to work actively against deforestation. She set up Circle of Life, a foundation that offers tools for sustainable living.

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Pollution is considered to be one of the world's biggest environmental threats. Here are ten shocking facts about pollution.

1. Plastic pollution adversely affects marine life. Over 1 million seabirds and 1,00,000 sea mammals are killed by plastic litter in the oceans every year.
2. In January 2019, the Ministry of Environment. Forest and Climate Change (MOEFCC) launched the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) to monitor and curb air pollution around the country. It aims to reduce air pollution in 122 cities by 20-30 per cent by 2024.
3. According to the World Air Quality Report, 2020' released by the Swiss organisation, IQAir, New Delhi is the most polluted capital city in the world. Altogether 35 Indian cities are among the world's top 50 most polluted cities.
4. River Ganga flows through many urban centres such as Kanpur, Patna and Kolkata, which dump their industrial effluents and wastewater in the river. The entire length of the river is polluted by the presence of faecal coliform bacteria (germs found in the faeces of warm-blooded animals and humans), making its waters unfit for bathing and drinking.
5. About 70% of water sources in India are severely contaminated. Every year about 37.7 million Indians are affected by waterborne diseases.
6. Noise pollution is one of the most under-rated forms of pollution. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), noise above 65 decibels (dB) is termed as noise pollution. Sounds becomes harmful when its exceeds 75 decibels (dB) and painful when it is above 120 dB.
7. Only 20% of about 3.5 million tonnes of solid waste that our world generates every day is recycled, thus overwhleming the landfills with unmangable quantities. Waste is often disposed of at hazardous open dump sites in developing nations including India causing land pollution. Indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has led to degradation of soil. making it infertile.
8. According to the WHO, air pollution kills about seven million people worldwide every year. Almost all of the global population (99%) breathe air that contains high levels of pollutants.
9. 80% of the world's wastewater is released back into the environment-most of it untreated, in the developing countries. Farm runoffs containing minerals such as nitrogen and phosphurus causes nutrient pollution leading to algae bloom. This destroys marine life and even results in permanent 'dead zones.
10. The Asian Brown Cloud (ABC) is a dense fog of pollutants that blankets South Asia from November to April. It hovers over western China, northwest Pakistan, Afghanistan and the Indo-Gangetic plain in northern India. The cloud is almost three kilometres thick. It contains a deadly cocktail of aerosols, ash, soot and other particles, 80 per cent of which is caused by human activity.

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Your carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide and methane) that are generated by your actions. This includes everything from production, use and end-of-life of a product or service that you consume.

While the global average carbon footprint is close to 4 tons, it is as high as 16 tons per person in a country like the U.S. In order to achieve the net-zero targets that we have set ourselves for 2050, this average figure has to be brought down to under 2 tons per person by then.

This daunting task can be made achievable by breaking it down suitably. By understanding your carbon footprint and reducing it with changes in your lifestyle, it is possible to make a big difference.

HOW CAN YOU CALCULATE YOUR CARBON FOOTPRINT?

There are many online calculators that help you find out your carbon footprint. Most of our daily activities like using electricity, driving a vehicle, or disposing waste. Cause greenhouse emissions. All these emissions together make up our household's carbon footprint. Transportation, housing and food are the three broad categories that form the bulk of an individual's carbon footprint. You will need to know the following details to key into a calculator and find out your carbon footprint:

1) Energy usage in your house.

2) Fuel consumption for cooking.

3) Average distances travelled by flights, car, two-wheelers, bus and train.

4) Composition of diet and average money spent on shopping and various other consumables on a weekly/monthly/yearly basis. Once you have a ballpark estimate of these values, you can then enter them into a calculator like this one: v.gd/cfcalc

Your carbon footprint across categories and the total will then be displayed, comparing it with India's average (if you had used our link) and that of the world's.

Knowing your carbon footprint is the first step towards reducing it. And when you reduce your carbon footprint, you will not only save the planet, but also increase your own savings.

HOW CAN YOU REDUCE YOUR CARBON FOOTPRINT?

Knowing your carbon footprint is the first step towards taking action. Once you are more aware of the effects of your actions, then it is possible to start with small changes in your lifestyle that might eventually make a big difference.

Here are some pointers that you and your family can act upon

1) Think about how much and how often you travel. Cut down where you can, especially air travel, and try to make the unavoidable trips more climate-friendly.

2) Be conscious of what you are eating. By eating low down the food chain as frequently as you can, you will not only be able to reduce your carbon footprint, but also stay healthier in the process. Eating everything on the plate is also very important as wasting less food helps you cut down on your carbon footprint while also saving you some money.

3) Make small changes in your home. Be it turning off lights and appliances when not in use, choosing renewables, recycling products, or making your home more energy efficient, there are plenty of things that you can do to save energy and money.

4) By buying less, shopping sustainably and adding your voice to the climate change discussion, you will be able to achieve more towards saving our planet.

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Among the numerous days celebrated the world over, the one that profoundly impacts the present as well as future generations is World Bicycle Day. Well, on 3 June every year, since 2018, the U.N. General Assembly dedicated this day to celebrate the joy of riding bicycles. The simple structure of a bicycle requires only air and a bit of energy to function, however, it has proved itself to be both environmentally-friendly and a friend to all mankind. Prof Leszek Sibilski, a Polish-American sociologist, along with his sociology students, was the inspirer of this cause.

Apart from being an eco-friendly and economic means of transport, bicycling also promotes good physical as well as mental health. Cycling decreases the possibility of falling prey to cardiovascular diseases, aids in building body muscle, and reduces overall fat. It strengthens bones, improves joint mobility and relieves stress. In addition, it also facilitates the regulation and maintenance of healthy blood sugar levels in our system. Thus, cycling reduces the risk of depression, obesity, arthritis, diabetes, certain cancers, strokes and heart attacks.

The bicycle symbolizes adaptability and sustainability. Governments around the world are adopting and promoting eco-friendly conveyance systems. Many countries have dedicated bicycle tracks which make commuting by bicycle safe. India, too, has introduced bicycle tracks in cities like Delhi and Bangalore.

Though daily riding to work may be an inconvenience, taking into consideration climatic conditions, either having to face the scorching sun or heavy rain, however, despite these conditions, enthusiastic riders change their cycling gear once they reach their destination. It's a trend already prevalent in Europe.

Types of bicycles

If you are new to buying a bicycle, these guidelines will help you choose the right one.

Road bikes: Designed for normal roads.

Mountain bikes: Suited for hilly terrains.

Hybrid/commuter bikes: Combination of road bikes and mountain bikes.

Cyclocross bikes: A road bike feel for off-road trips.

Folding bikes: Commuting, leisure or touring for the short-on-space.

Electric bikes: A hybrid, mountain or road bike with a battery and a motor.

Touring bikes: Designed for carrying loads over longer distances while remaining comfortable for the rider.

Taking into consideration the multiple benefits that cycling has to offer, using a bicycle whenever possible, if not regularly, will be advantageous to both our earth and ourselves. Look for ways in which cycling can be introduced into your daily routine; maybe riding to nearby places while carrying out daily tasks, to school, work or a friend's house. Let's try and adopt the culture of cycling and be the change our environment and our health needs.

Fun Facts

• The longest tandem' bicycle seated 35 people; it was more than 20 metres long.
• Every year, around a 100 million bicycles are manufactured worldwide.
• The use of bicycles has conserved more than 238 gallons of gas yearly.
• The Netherlands is the most bicycle friendly country in the world. 30 per cent of all transport is via bicycle. Seven out of eight of its residents over the age of 15 own bicycles.
• The Tour de France, established in 1903, is the most famous bicycle race in the world. Bicycle track racing has been a sport in the Olympic Games since 1896.

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Hosting hundreds of plant and animals species that are found nowhere in the world, it's small wonder that Yemen's Socotra archipelago has been called the Galapagos of the Indian Ocean.

Full of life!

Located more than 300 km from its parent country Yemen, the Socotra archipelago comprises four islands in the Indian Ocean between Somalia and Yemen. Covering a total area of nearly 4,000 sq.km., the islands are known for their rich biodiversity and unique flora and fauna. For instance, among the 825 plant species found in the region now, as many as 307 cannot be seen anywhere else in the world. Birds such as the Socotra starling, Socotra sunbird, and Socotra warbler are said to be found only here. A staggering 90% of reptile species and 95% of land snails too are said to be endemic (found nowhere else). Because of this, the place is often referred to as the "Galapagos of the Indian Ocean".

Lying close as it does to the African continent, the archipelago appears to be the extension of the Horn of Africa. About 20 million years ago, these islands were believed to have broken off the Gondwana supercontinent. The archipelago was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site with "Outstanding Universal Value" in 2008. Though the habitats within the region appear to be healthy and safe, they are not without threat. These include tourism, invasive species, overusing of natural resources and natural disasters. In fact, the conservation outlook for this site has been assessed as "significant concern" in the latest assessment cycle 2020.

Wildlife

Nearly 200 species of birds, including land and sea, are said to be seen in the archipelago. Among them are garganeys, shovelers, pintails, teals, ducks, guinea fowls, quails, flamingoes, grebes, pigeons, doves, sandgrouses, coucals, nightjars, swifts, moorhens, stilts, plovers, stints, snipes, sandpipers, coursers, gulls, terns, tropicbirds, petrels, shearwaters, boobies, egrets, herons, ibises, ospreys, buzzards, owls, hoopoes, bee-eaters, falcons, shrikes, ravens, larks, martins, swallows, warblers, whitethroats, thrushes, wheatears, starlings, sunbirds, pipits, wagtails, buntings, and sparrows. As an archipelago, the region has a startling variety of corals, fishes, crabs, lobsters, and shrimps too, together adding up to more than 1,000 species!

Dragon's blood tree

Synonymous with the identity of Socotra, the dragon's blood tree is found nowhere else in the world. It "lives within remnants of prehistoric 'Dragonsblood forest on granite mountains and limestone plateaus" within Socotra.

Marked by a unique umbrella-shaped canopy, the tree is said to capture the moisture in the air through its leaves and take it to the roots. Having held an economically significant role for centuries, the tree has varied uses. When fed to cattle in very small quantities, the tree's berries are said to improve the animals' health.

The tree gets its name from the red-coloured resin it produces, and this resin is believed to have several medicinal uses. The International Union for Conservation of Nature's conservation status for the tree is "vulnerable".. Shockingly, it has been discovered that hardly any "populations are regenerating naturally". In addition, it has been noticed that "in some areas young trees lack the species' characteristic umbrella shape".

As climate change intensifies, "Socotra is drying out, with once reliable monsoon weather becoming patchy and irregular. And this could spell irreversible change to the archipelago and its unique inhabitants.

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A study reveals that mushrooms (the above-ground fruit of fungi) are great communicators. When the hyphae (long, thread-like structures that form the mycelium or root network) of a wood-digesting fungi came into contact with wood, they lit up with spikes of electrical signals that reached out to the hyphae of other fungi, suggesting that fungi may use electrical transmissions to share information about food or injury.

To measure spikes in signal activity, tiny electrodes were connected to the hyphae of four fungi species ghost, caterpillar, split gill and enoki. Spikes varied in duration and length, with some lasting up to 21 hours. The clusters of electrical spikes resembled a human vocabulary of up to 50 'words'. However, only 15 to 20 fungal words are used frequently. The average length of each word was 5.97 'letters'; the English language averages 4.8 letters per word. Split-gill mushrooms produced the most diverse 'sentences'.

While the research shows that fungi produce patterns of electric signals, there's no way to tell what they are talking about. Comparing the electrical impulses to human speech is notable, but some researchers say that it requires more research.

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We know that scattering of light depends on its wavelength. The shorter the wavelength, the greater the scattering. The sky appears blue because blue light is extensively scattered. Why doesn't the sky appear violet? After all, violet has the shortest wavelength in the visible spectrum and therefore it should be scattered the most

When white sunlight enters our atmosphere it is reflected in all directions by millions of tiny particles of dust or by water droplets. This is called scattering.

White light is made up of seven colours each of which has its own wavelength. The colours with the shortest wavelengths are at the blue end of the spectrum. They are scattered the most. The most scattered is violet which has the shortest wavelength in the visible spectrum.

However, we don't see the sky as violet or indigo. This is because our eyes can see blue colour better than the other two colours.

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