My Science School

Asia is the largest continent. The northern part is taken up entirely by Russia, where icy tundra and coniferous forests dominate the landscape. Further south are the barren grasslands, or steppes, of Central Asia. These merge into vast areas of desert that are bitterly cold in winter.

Much of southwest Asia, known as the Middle East, is also covered by desert, but this is hot, dry and often sandy. South of the world’s highest mountain range, the Himalayas, the countries of southern Asia have a monsoon climate. Long periods of hot, dry weather are followed by heavy rains. To the southeast, a peninsula reaches out towards the many islands of Indonesia, where important areas of dense tropical rainforest are found.

Large areas of Asia are virtually uninhabited, but Asia still has much the largest population of any continent. In the south and east, several countries have become wealthy from their rich reserves of oil or their successful technological industries. In many other countries, however, poverty is rife. Most people farm for a living, and are vulnerable to floods or droughts. Asian cities are growing larger as more and more people move in from the countryside to try to find work.

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The countries of southwest Asia are known as the Middle East. Much of this region is covered with mountains or desert, and has a hot, dry climate. The most fertile areas are along the Mediterranean coast and the river floodplains of eastern Iraq. Here, crops such as cereals and citrus fruits can be grown.

Other Middle Eastern countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates, have become very wealthy despite their lack of water and mostly barren land. They have huge reserves of oil, which they export to the rest of the world.

Some Middle Eastern cities date back thousands of years. Many have a pattern of narrow, winding streets around a central market and mosque for worship. Outside Israel, a Jewish state, most people follow the religion of Islam, but there is also frequent conflict between religious and ethnic groups. Border and territorial disputes between countries have also led to wars in the Middle East.

Stretching between two continents, Europe and Asia, Russia is the largest country in the world. Until 1991 it was part of the Soviet Union. Most of Russia’s population lives west of the Ural Mountains, in the European part, many in the big cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Also in this area lies a good part of Russia’s farmland, producing cereals and root crops.

East of the Ural Mountains is Siberia, a vast area of sparsely populated land. The climate is harsh, with frozen tundra in the north and thick coniferous forest, known as taiga, further south. The deepest lake in the world, Lake Baikal, is found in the south-east. Siberia is rich in coal, oil, gas and metal ores. The region has a small population, but a large number of different peoples.

Scattered around the fringes of the Arctic Ocean are a number of small communities. They herd reindeer or cattle, and use animal skins to keep warm as their ancestors did.

The Trans-Siberian Railway runs from Moscow across the southern part of Siberia. It is a vital link for people and industry between east and west. The longest line in the world, it takes eight days to travel.

Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia, for all its natural mineral wealth, long-established industries and advanced technology, is struggling to develop its economy.

CENTRAL ASIA

Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are the Central Asian republics. Much of the region is desert and dry grassland, with mountains to the south. There are reserves of coal, gas and metal ores.

South of the Caucasus mountain range lie Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia. Their fertile land produces many crops, and also has reserves of oil and gas. The Caucasus contains many different ethnic groups and often experiences conflict.

The Balkans, which makes up most of south-east Europe, are lands of rugged mountains and deep valleys. Winters are cold, but cotton, tobacco and grapes can be grown in the warm summers. Several of these countries were once part of Yugoslavia. The creation of new borders, as well as clashes between ethnic groups, has led to conflict.

Greece is one of the oldest nations in Europe. As a mountainous country, farming space is limited, and its olive groves and vineyards are scattered along the hillsides. Greece has many islands, and a large part of its economy relies on a large shipping industry and tourism.

Turkey is split between Europe and Asia by a narrow stretch of water called the Bosporus. Turkey’s coasts are warm, but the dry grasslands of its interior can be bitterly cold in winter. Turkey is famous for its craft industry, especially carpets and pottery. Its Mediterranean coastline and ancient sites also make it a popular tourist destination.

Much of central and Eastern Europe is flat, low-lying land. A large part of this is given over to farming, but native forest still remains in upland areas, where elk, wolves and bison roam. The northern part of this region has warm summers but cold winters. Crops such as potatoes and cereals are grown, and animals are farmed for their milk and meat.

Heavy industries such as mining, metal-working, car production and glass-making are important for the economy of Poland. Pollution from the burning of coal to produce electricity, and from factories and cars, threatens the environment.

In the south, the forested Sudetes and Carpathian Mountain ranges rim the Czech Republic and cover much of Slovakia. Cereals, root vegetables and livestock are farmed in the valleys. The fertile lowlands of Hungary are scattered with orchards and vineyards. All three countries have vehicle, chemical and textile industries.

The undulating lowlands of the Ukraine with their fertile “black earth” have long been intensively cultivated. There are fields of wheat, barley, sugar beet and sunflowers. Manufacturing is concentrated in the Ukraine’s southeastern cities.

The borders of Central and Eastern Europe have changed many times over the years. Until recently, many countries were controlled by, or were part of the former Soviet Union. They are now independent, and grow in prosperity.

 

Surrounded on three sides by the Mediterranean Sea, Italy is shaped like a boot about to kick a stone - the island of Sicily. The Alps, including the jagged, limestone Dolomites, form the border in the north. Running the length of the boot down to the toe are the thickly-wooded Apennines. Both Sicily and Sardinia are rugged, hilly islands.

Italy also has three active volcanoes: Vesuvius, Stromboli and Etna. In AD 79, Vesuvius erupted, burying the town of Pompeii. The remains of a great Roman civilization have since been uncovered.

Northern Italy is more prosperous than the south, Sicily and Sardinia. There are major industrial cities such as Milan and Turin, vineyards, and fields of wheat, maize and tomatoes.

The Vatican City, which lies within the city of Rome, is the smallest independent state in the world. It is home to the Pope, the head of the Catholic Church.

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At the centre of Europe lies Germany, with its neighbours Austria and Switzerland, and the “low countries” of Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg.

Germany is flat and fertile in the north and heavily forested in the hills of the central and southern areas. It is a wealthy country, and an industrial leader, producing cars, electrical goods and chemicals for export all over the world.

The Alps rise in the south of Germany. Much of the area of Austria and Switzerland is taken up by Alpine peaks and valleys. These picturesque, prosperous countries also have modern industries.

The Netherlands is famous for its dairy goods and fields of flowers. Belgium is a land of two regions: the north, Dutch-speaking Flanders, is mostly level farmland, while the south, French-speaking Wallonia is hilly, wooded country.

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The Iberian Peninsula, divided between the countries of Spain and Portugal, is separated from the rest of Europe by the Pyrenees Mountains. The core of the peninsula is a plateau called the Meseta, a landscape of plains crossed by several mountain ranges.

Spain has four official languages - Galician, Catalan, Basque as well as Spanish -and several dialects. The north of the country, Spain’s industrial heartland, is cooler and wetter. Central Spain is much drier. Large areas are barren or given over to rough pasture for sheep and goats. Tourist resorts have grown up along the Mediterranean coast. Andalucía is famous for bull-fighting, sherry, orange trees and flamenco dancers.

Portugal has long held close ties with the sea. Famous for its explorers, Portuguese sailors founded colonies in Africa, Asia and America more than 500 years ago. Today, farming and fishing are among the main industries - supplying the world with anchovies, sardines, shellfish, cork and port, a sweet wine produced in the region near Porto. Along the drier south coast is the Algarve, popular with tourists.

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Norway, Sweden and Denmark are together known as Scandinavia. Along with Finland and the volcanic island of Iceland, they form the Nordic countries. Some parts of Norway, Sweden and Finland lie within the Arctic Circle, where the sun never sets in high summer, but never rises in the depths of the long, cold winter.

Norway and Sweden are mountainous countries, while Finland and Denmark are low-lying. Finland is covered with dense coniferous forests and many lakes. In the past, glaciers have carved out the many inlets, or fjords, in Norway’s coastline.

The Nordic countries are prosperous and have low populations. They are important producers of timber, and are also world leaders in manufacturing. Denmark is also a farming country, with many dairy and pig farms.

The Baltic countries of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania used to be part of the former Soviet Union. Timber, fishing and farming are their most important industries.

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France shares borders with several other countries on its eastern side, but the north and west look on to the sea. In the south, the Pyrenees Mountains separate France from Spain, while the Alps form a border with Italy in the east. The Mediterranean Sea gives the south coast its warm climate and makes it a popular destination for tourists.

Much of France, especially in the north, is strongly agricultural. Many large rivers wind across fertile, undulating plains. France exports large quantities of food and wine, famous for its quality. It also has modern manufacturing and chemical industries. Nuclear power provides much of the country’s electricity supplies.

Most people in France are descended from ancient peoples including the Gauls, a Central European tribe, and the Franks, after whom the country is named. More recently, people from France’s former colonies in North Africa have made their homes in France.

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The British Isles includes the large islands of Great Britain and Ireland, and many smaller islands. England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland make up the United Kingdom. The rest of Ireland became independent in 1922. For many years conflict has divided the Catholic and Protestant people of Northern Ireland.

Mountains dominate the sparsely populated north of Scotland. Northern England and Wales also have large areas of uplands. Central and southern England are dense mix of farmland, towns and cities. Because of its mild, wet climate, Ireland is famous for its lush green landscape.

The United Kingdom was once dominated by heavy industries such as coal-mining and shipbuilding. Today, light industry such as plastics manufacture and electronics, as well as communications and financial services, have become important.

Once the hub of a worldwide empire, Britain still plays a leading role in international affairs. Its language, English, is spoken as a second language all over the world, and is dominant on the Internet and other areas of international communication.

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Europe is a dense patchwork of nations. The continent is actually part of a single land-mass that also includes Asia, but there are also a number of islands. A large part of Russia and a small part of Turkey are also included within Europe.

In the far north, Europe borders the Arctic Ocean. Frozen tundra merges into the vast coniferous forests of Russia and Scandinavia. The Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current, gives the northwestern countries a mild, wet climate. Central Europe and Russia have hot summers but cold winters. To the south, beyond the mountain ranges of the Pyrenees and the Alps, lie the sunny Mediterranean lands.

Europe is, for the most part, densely populated. Waterways and road and rail networks link its major cities. Much of its land is under cultivation or pasture. Only a few large areas of uninhabited land remain in the north.

Compared to other parts of the world, European countries are wealthy, though the West is generally more prosperous. Through history, conflicts have flared between and within countries. Several have split into smaller, independent nations in recent years.

People who originate from many different parts of the world now live in Europe. Countries such as England, France and Spain once ruled much of America, Africa and Asia. Many people from these continents have now settled in Europe, giving it a rich variety of cultures.

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Venezuela, the Guianas (Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana) and Brazil are rich in natural resources such as oil, bauxite, silver and other minerals. Brazil also produces coffee, sugar and fruit for export, while Guyana has large sugar plantations. Despite these resources, there is a great contrast in the distribution of wealth. A few people are very rich, while others live in poverty. The towns and cities are densely populated with people looking for work. Clusters of poor housing known as shantytowns, built from whatever materials can be found, sprawl around the edges of cities such as Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo.

The northern Andean countries of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia are also rich in minerals. Fertile farming land is scarce, so farmers have cut terraces into the hillsides to form level fields. Cotton, sugarcane, coffee and bananas are grown in the warm lowlands, while cereals and potatoes grow in higher, cooler regions. Economic problems and political unrest have caused poverty in these countries.

Further south is the long, narrow country of Chile. Mining, especially copper, is very important in the Andes Mountains, while the valleys are fertile, producing cereals, fruits and vines. East of the Andes are the open grasslands, known as pampas, of Argentina and Uruguay. Here, millions of cattle and sheep graze on vast ranches. They are exported for their meat and wool. Chile, Uruguay and Argentina all have modern cities and a high standard of living.

The Gran Chaco, a dry, scrubland plain, covers much of northwest Paraguay. Cattle are farmed and cotton grown in the more fertile south and east. Paraguay has the world’s largest hydro-electric project, the Itapúa Dam on the Parana River.